[139] In a few rare cases the objects destined for the nourishment of the _double_ are represented in the round instead of being painted upon the wall. In the tomb of the personage called Atta, a wooden table, supporting terra-cotta vases and plucked geese carved in calcareous stone, has been found.
(MARIETTE, _Tombes de l"Ancien Empire_, p. 17.) The vases must have been full of water when they were placed in the tomb; the stone geese may be compared to the _papier-mache_ loaves of the modern stage.
A custom which would seem to have established itself a little later may be referred to the same desire; we mean the habit of placing in the tomb those statuettes which we meet with in such vast numbers after the commencement of the second Theban Empire.[140] Mariette obtained some from tombs of the twelfth dynasty, and the sixth chapter of the _Book of the Dead_, which is engraved upon them, seems to be one of the most ancient. Egyptologists are now inclined to believe that the essential parts of this ritual date back as far as the Memphite period.
[140] All Egyptian collections contain coffers of painted wood, often decorated in the most brilliant fashion, which served to hold these statues when they were placed in the tomb. The size and the richness of their ornament depended upon the wealth of the deceased for who they were made.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 94.--Labourers heaping up ears of corn, from a tomb at Gizeh. (_Description de l"egypte._)]
These statuettes are of different sizes and materials. As a rule they do not exceed from eight to twelve inches, but there are a few which are three feet or more in height. Some are in wood, some in limestone, and some in granite, but as a rule they are made of that kind of terra cotta which, when covered with green or blue enamel, has been called Egyptian porcelain. They are like a mummy in appearance; their hands are crossed upon the breast and hold instruments of agriculture such as hoes and picks, and a sack meant for grain hangs from their shoulders. The meaning of all this is to be sought in the Egyptian notions of a future life; it is also explained by the picture in chapter XC. of the _Ritual_, which shows us the dead tilling, sowing and harvesting in the fields of the other world. The texts of the Ritual and of certain inscriptions call these little figures _oushebti_ or _answerers_ from the verb _ousheb_, to answer. It is therefore easy to divine the part attributed to them by the popular imagination. They answered to the name traced upon the tomb and acted as subst.i.tute for its tenant in the cultivation of the subterranean regions.[141] With the help of the attendants painted and sculptured upon the walls they saved him from fatigue and from the chance of want. This is another branch of the same old idea. In his desire to take every precaution against the misery and final annihilation which would result from abandonment, the Egyptian thought he could never go too far in furnishing, provisioning and peopling his tomb.
[141] PIETSCHMANN (_Der Egyptische Fetischdienst_, &c., p. 155), has well grasped the character and significance of these statuettes. Conf. PIERRET, _Dictionnaire d"Archeologie egyptienne_, vol. v. See also, in connection with the personality attributed to them and to the services which were expected from them, a note by M. MASPERO, _Sur une Tablette appartenant a M. Rogers_. (_Recueil de Travaux_, vol. ii. p.
12.)
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIGS. 95, 96.--Sepulchral statuettes, from the Louvre.]
The ingenuity of their contrivances is extraordinary. Food in its natural state would not keep, and various accidents, might, as we have shown, lead to the death of the _double_ by inanition. It was the same with furniture and clothes; the narrow dimensions of the tomb, moreover, would forbid the acc.u.mulation there of everything which its sombre tenant might desire. On the other hand the funerary statuettes were made of the most indestructible materials and the bas-reliefs and paintings were one with the thick walls of stone or living rock. These have survived practically unaltered until our day. We visited the tomb of Ti a short time after its chambers had been opened and cleared. It was marvellous to see how form and colour had been preserved intact and fresh under the sand, and this work which was four or five thousand years old seemed to be but lately finished. By the brightness of their colours and the sharp precision of their contours these charming reliefs had the effect of a newly struck medal. Such scenes from the daily life of the people continued to be figured upon Egyptian tombs from the old empire to the new. When their study and comparison were first begun different explanations were put forward.
Some believed that they were an ill.u.s.trated biography of the deceased, a representation of his achievements or of those over which he had presided during the course of his mortal life; others saw in them an ill.u.s.tration of his future life, a setting forth of the joys and pleasures of the Egyptian Elysium.
Both these interpretations have had to give way before the critical examination of the pictures themselves and the decipherment of their accompanying inscriptions. It was soon perceived, through comparisons easily made, that these scenes were not anecdotic. On a few very rare occasions they seem to be connected with circ.u.mstances peculiar to the inhabitant of the tomb. There are a few steles and tombs upon which the dead man seems to have caused his services to be described, with the object, no doubt, of continuing in the next world his career of honour and success in this. Such an inscription is so far biographical, and a similar spirit may extend to the decorations of the stele and walls of the tomb. As an example of such narrative epigraphs we may cite the long inscription of Ouna, which gives us the life of a sort of grand-vizier to the two first Kings of the sixth dynasty;[142] also the inscriptions upon the tombs of those feudal princes who were buried at Beni-Ha.s.san. In the latter there are historical representations as commentaries upon the text. Among these is the often reproduced painting of a band of Asiatic emigrants bringing presents to the prince and demanding, perhaps, a supply of wheat in return, like the Hebrews in the time of Jacob.
[142] DE ROUGe, _Memoire sur les Monuments des six premieres Dynasties_ (p. 80 _et seq._). Conf. MASPERO, _Histoire Ancienne_, pp. 88-92.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 97.--Vignette from a Ritual upon papyrus, in the Louvre. Chap. XC., 20th dynasty.]
But all this is exceptional. As a rule the same subjects occur upon the tombs again and again, in the persistent fashion which characterizes traditional themes. The figures by which the flocks and herds and other possessions of the deceased were numbered are too great for literal truth.[143] On the other hand the pictured tradesmen and artificers, from the labourer, the baker, and the butcher up to the sculptor, seem to apply themselves to their work with an energy which excludes the notion of ideal felicity. They, one and all, labour conscientiously, and we feel that they are carrying out a task which has been imposed upon them as a duty.
[143] See MARIETTE, _Tombes de l"Ancien Empire_, p. 88.
For whose benefit do they take all this trouble? If we attempt to enter into the minds of the people who traced these images and compare the pictured representations with the texts which accompany them, we shall be enabled to answer that question. Let us take by chance any one of the inscriptions which accompany the scenes figured upon the famous tomb of Ti, and here is what we find. "To see the picking and pressing of the grape and all the labours of the country." Again, "To see the picking of the flax, the reaping of the corn, the transport upon donkeys, the stacking of the crops of the tomb." Again, "Ti sees the stalls of the oxen and of the small animals, the gutters and water-channels of the tomb."
It is for the dead that the vintage takes place, that the flax is picked, that the wheat is threshed, that oxen are driven into the fields, that the soil is ploughed and irrigated. It is for the supply of his wants that all these st.u.r.dy arms are employed.
We shall leave M. Maspero to sum up the ideas which presided at the construction of the Egyptian tomb, but first we must draw our readers" notice to the fact that he, more than once, alludes to a conception of the future life which differs somewhat from the early Egyptian notions, and belongs rather to the Second Theban Empire and its successors.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 98.--Arrival in Egypt of a company of Asiatic emigrants (Champollion, pls. 362, 393).]
"The scenes chosen for the decoration of tomb walls had a magic intention; whether drawn from civil life in the world or from that of Hades, they were meant to preserve the dead from danger and to insure him a happy existence beyond the tomb.... Their reproduction upon the walls of the sepulchre guaranteed the performance of the acts represented. The _double_ shut up in his s?????[144] saw himself going to the chase upon the surrounding walls and he went to the chase; eating and drinking with his wife, and he ate and drank with her; crossing in safety the terrible gulfs of the lower world in the barque of the G.o.ds, and he crossed them in safety. The tilling, reaping, and housing on his walls were for him real tilling, reaping, and housing. So, too, the statuettes placed in his tomb carried out for him under magic influence all the work of the fields, and, like the sorcerer"s pestle in Goethe"s ballad, drew water for him and carried grain. The workmen painted in his papyri made shoes for him and cooked his food; they carried him to hunt in the deserts or to fish in the marshes. And, after all, the world of va.s.sals upon the sides of the sepulchre was as real as the _double_ for which they laboured; the picture of a slave might well satisfy the shadow of a master. The Egyptian thought that by filling his tomb with pictures he insured the reality of all the objects, people, and scenes represented in another world, and he was thus encouraged to construct his tomb while he was yet alive. Relations, too, thought that they were doing a service to the deceased when they carried out all the mysterious ceremonies which accompanied his burial. The certainty that they had been the cause of some benefit to him consoled and supported them on their return from the cemetery where they had left their regretted dead in possession of his imaginary domain."[145]
[144] This word, s????? (flute), was employed by the Greeks to designate those long subterranean galleries cut in the rock of the necropolis at Thebes, in the valley called the _Valley of the Kings_; modern egyptologists apply it in a more general sense to all tombs cut deeply into the flanks of the mountain.
For the reason which led the Greeks to adopt a term which now seems rather fantastic, see PIERRET, _Dictionnaire d"Archeologie egyptienne_. The chief pa.s.sages in ancient authors in which the term is applied either to the subterranean excavations of Egypt or to other galleries of the same kind, are brought together by Jomard in the third volume of the _Description_ (_Antiquites_, vol. iii. pp. 12-14).
[145] _Journal asiatique_, May-June, 1880, pp. 419, 420.
Such a belief is astonishing to us; it demands an effort of the imagination to which we moderns are in no way equal. We have great difficulty in realising a state of mind so different from what ours has become after centuries of progress and thought. Those early races had neither a long enough experience of things, nor a sufficiently capable power of reflection to enable them to distinguish the possible from the impossible. They did not appreciate the difference between living things and those which we call inanimate. They endowed all things about them with souls like their own. They found no more difficulty in giving life to their carved and painted domestics, than to the mummy or statue of the deceased, or to the phantom which they called the double. Is it not natural to the child to take revenge upon the table against which he hurts himself, or to speak tenderly to the doll which he holds in his arms?
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 99.--The tomb of Ti; women, representing the lands of the deceased, carrying the funeral gifts.]
This power to endow all things with life and personality is now reserved for the poet and the infant, but in the primitive days of civilization it belonged to all people alike. Imagination had then a power over a whole race which in our days is the gift of great poets alone. In the efforts which they made to forestall the wants of the helpless dead, they were not content with providing the food and furniture which we find upon the walls. They had a secret impression that these might be insufficient for wants renewed through eternity, and they made another step upon the way upon which they had embarked.
By a still more curious and still bolder fiction than those which had gone before, they attributed to prayer the power of multiplying, by the use of a few magic sentences, all objects of the first necessity to the inhabitants of the tomb.
Every sepulchre has a _stele_, that is to say, an upright stone tablet which varied in form and place in different epochs, but always served the same purpose and had the same general character. Most of these steles were adorned with painting and sculpture; all of them had more or less complicated inscriptions.[146] In the semicircle which forms the upper part of most of these inscribed slabs, the dead person, accompanied by his family, presents offerings to a G.o.d, who is usually Osiris. Under this an inscription is carved after an unchanging formula: "Offering to Osiris (or to some other deity, as the case may be) in order that he may give provision of bread, liquid, beef, geese, milk, wine, beer, clothes, perfumes, and all good and pure things upon which the G.o.d subsists, to the ka of N..., son of M...." Below this the defunct is often shown in the act of himself receiving the offerings of his family. In both divisions the objects figured are looked upon as real, as in the wall decorations. In the lower division they are offered directly to him who is to profit by them; in the upper, the G.o.d is charged to see that they are delivered to the right address. The provisions which the G.o.d is asked to pa.s.s on to the defunct are first presented to him; by the intervention of Osiris the _doubles_ of bread, meat and drink pa.s.s into the other world to nourish the double of man. But it was not essential for the gift to be effective that it should be real, or even _quasi_-real; that its image should even be given in paint or stone. The first-comer could procure all things necessary for the deceased by their enumeration in the proper form. We find therefore that many Egyptians caused the following invocation to pa.s.sing strangers, to be engraved upon their tombs:
[146] See above, Figs. 87 and 91.
"Oh you who still exist upon the earth, whether you be private individuals, priests, scribes, or ministers entering into this tomb, if you love life and do not know death, if you wish to be in favour with the G.o.ds of your cities and to avoid the terrors of the other world, if you wish to be entombed in your own sepulchres and to transmit your dignities to your children, you must if you be scribes, recite the words inscribed upon this stone, or, if not, you must listen to their recital: say, offering to Amen, master of Karnak, that he may give thousands of loaves of bread, thousands of jars of drink, thousands of oxen, thousands of geese, thousands of garments, thousands of all good and pure things to the _ka_, or _double_, of the prince Entef."[147]
[147] We borrow the translation of this inscription, as well as the reflections which precede it, from M. MASPERO (_Conference_, p. 382). According to M. de Rouge, it dates from about the twelfth dynasty. An invocation of the same kind is to be found in another epigraph of the same period, the inscription of Amoni-Amenemhat, hereditary prince of the nome of Meh, at Beni-Ha.s.san. See MASPERO, _La Grande Inscription de Beni-Ha.s.san_, p. 171 (_Recueil de Travaux_, etc., vol. i.
4to.).
Thanks to all these subtle precautions, and to the goodwill with which the Egyptian intellect lent itself to their bold fictions, the tomb deserved the name it received, the _house of the double_. The _double_, when thus installed in a dwelling furnished for his use, received the visits and offerings of his friends and relations; "he had priests retained and paid to offer sacrifices to him; he had slaves, beasts of burden, and estates charged with his support. He was like a great lord sojourning in a strange country and having his wants attended to by intermediary officials a.s.signed to his service."[148]
[148] MASPERO, _Conference_, p. 282.
This a.n.a.logy between the house and the tomb is so complete that it embraces details which do not seem very congruous. Like the house of the living, the tomb was strictly oriented, but after a mystic principle of its own.
As soon as the Egyptian began to think he perceived the most obvious of the similarities between the sun"s career and that of man. Man has his dawn and his setting. Man grows from the early glimmerings of infancy to the apogee of his wisdom and strength; he then begins to decline and, like the magnified evening sun, ends by disappearing after his death into the depths of the soil.
In Egypt the sun sets every evening behind the Libyan chain; thence he penetrates into those subterranean regions of Ament across which he has to make his way before the dawn of the next day. The Egyptian cemeteries were therefore placed on the left bank of the Nile, that is, in the west of the country. All the known pyramids were built in the west, and there we find all the more important "cities of the dead," the necropolis of Memphis and those of Abydos and Thebes. A few unimportant groups of tombs have indeed been found upon the eastern bank; but these exceptions to a general rule are doubtless to be explained by a question of distance. For any city placed near the eastern border of the wider parts of the Nile valley, a burying-place in the Libyan chain would be very inconvenient both for the transport of the dead, and for the sepulchral duties of the survivors.[149]
[149] Among the cemeteries of the right bank we may mention that of Tell-el-Amarna; where the tombs would have been too far from the city had they been dug in the Libyan Chain. The cemeteries of Beni-Ha.s.san and of Eilithyia (_El-Kab_) are also in the Arab Chain. In spite of these exceptions, however, the west was the real quarter of the dead, their natural habitation, as is proved by the tearful funeral songs translated by M. MASPERO: "The mourners before the ever-to-be praised Hor-Khom say, "O chief, as thou goest toward the West, the G.o.ds lament thee." The friends who close the procession repeat, "To the West, to the West, oh praiseworthy one, to the excellent West!"" MASPERO, _etude sur quelques Peintures funeraires_ (_Journal asiatique_, February-April, 1881, p. 148).
Each morning sees the sun rise as youthful and ardent as the morning before. Why then should not man, after completing his subterranean journey and triumphing over the terrors of Ament, cast off the darkness of the tomb and again see the light of day? This undying hope was revivified at each dawn as by a new promise, and the Egyptians followed out the a.n.a.logy by the way in which they disposed their sepulchres. They were placed in the west of their country, towards the setting sun, but their doors, the openings through which their inmates would one day regain the light, were turned to the east. In the necropolis of Memphis, the door of nearly every tomb is turned to the east,[150] and there is not a single stele which does not face in that direction.[151] In the necropolis of Abydos, both door and stele are more often turned towards the south, that is towards the sun at its zenith.[152] But neither at Memphis, at Abydos, nor at Thebes is there a tomb which is lighted from the west or presents its inscription to the setting sun.[153] Thus, from the shadowy depths where they dwell, the dead have their eyes turned to that quarter of the heavens where the life-giving flame is each day rekindled, and seem to be waiting for the ray which is to destroy their night and to rouse them from their long repose.[154]
[150] "It is so," says Mariette, "four times out of five." (_Les Tombes de l"Ancien Empire_, in the _Revue archeologique_, new series, vol. xix. p. 12).
[151] "In the further wall of the chamber, and _invariably facing eastwards_, is a stele." (_Ibidem_, p. 14.)
[152] MARIETTE, _Abydos_, vol. ii. p. 43.
[153] The tombs in the Arab Chain form, of course, an exception to this rule. The unusual circ.u.mstances which took them eastward of the river forced them also to neglect the traditional law.
[154] The symbolic connection established by man between the course of the sun and his own life was well understood by Champollion, who used it to explain the paintings in the royal tombs at Thebes. (See his remarks on the tomb of Rameses V. on the 185th and following pages of his _Lettres d"egypte_, &c.)
The ideas and beliefs which we have described were common to all Egyptians, irrespective of cla.s.s. When he felt his last hour approaching, the humble peasant or boatman on the Nile was as anxious as Pharaoh himself to insure the survival of his double and to guard against the terrors of annihilation:
... Mais, jusqu"en son trepas, Le riche a des honneurs que le pauvre n"a pas.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 100.--Lid of the coffin of Entef, 11th dynasty.
Louvre.]
Those who, when alive, had to be content with a hut of earth or of reeds, could not, when dead, expect to have a tomb of stone or brick, a habitation for eternity; they could not look for joys in the other world which they had been unable to procure in this. So that such tombs as those which most fully embodied the ideas we have described must always have remained the exclusive privilege more or less of the governing cla.s.ses. These consisted of the king, the princes and n.o.bles, the priests, the military chiefs, and functionaries of every kind down to the humblest of the scribes attached to the administration. As for those Egyptians who did not belong to this aristocracy, they had to be content with less expensive arrangements.
The less poor among them at least took measures to be embalmed and to be placed in a coffin of wood or _papier-mache_, accompanied by scarabs and other charms to protect them against malignant spirits.
The painted figures upon the coffin also helped to keep off evil influences. If they could afford it they purchased places in a common tomb, where the mummies were heaped one upon the other and confided to the care of priests who performed the funerary rites for a whole chamber at once.[155] It was the frequent custom to put with the dead those pillows of wood or alabaster which the Egyptians seem to have used from the most ancient times for the support of their heads in sleep. This contrivance, which does away with the necessity for continually rearranging their complicated head-dress, is still used by the Nubians and Abyssinians.
[155] Upon the papyrus known as the _Papyrus Casati_, mention is made of a priest who is charged to watch over a whole collection of mummies.
"This is the list of bodies belonging to Osorvaris:-- "Imouth, son of Petenefhotep, his wife and children; "Medledk, the carpenter, his wife and children; "Pipee, his wife and children, from Hermouth; "The father of Phratreou, the fuller; "Aplou, the son of Petenhefhotep the boatman, his wife and children, from Thebes; "Psenmouth, the carpenter, his wife and children; "Psenimonthis, the mason; "Amenoth, the cowherd."