The world is now entering upon the Mechanical Epoch. There is nothing in the future more sure than the great triumphs which that epoch is to achieve. It has already advanced to some glorious conquests. What miracles of invention now crowd upon us! Look abroad, and contemplate the infinite achievements of the steam-power.
And yet we have only begun--we are but on the threshold of this epoch.... What is it but the setting of the great distinctive seal upon the nineteenth century?--an advertis.e.m.e.nt of the fact that society has risen to occupy a higher platform than ever before?--a proclamation from the high places, announcing honor, honor immortal, to the workmen who fill this world with beauty, comfort, and power--honor to be forever embalmed in history, to be perpetuated in monuments, to be written in the hearts of this and succeeding generations!--KENNEDY.
SECTION I.--JAMES WATT AND HIS INVENTIONS.
The success of the Newcomen engine naturally attracted the attention of mechanics, and of scientific men as well, to the possibility of making other applications of steam-power.
The best men of the time gave much attention to the subject, but, until James Watt began the work that has made him famous, nothing more was done than to improve the proportions and slightly alter the details of the Newcomen and Calley engine, even by such skillful engineers as Brindley and Smeaton. Of the personal history of the earlier inventors and improvers of the steam-engine, very little is ascertained; but that of Watt has become well known.
[Ill.u.s.tration: James Watt.]
JAMES WATT was of an humble lineage, and was born at Greenock, then a little Scotch fishing village, but now a considerable and a busy town, which annually launches upon the waters of the Clyde a fleet of steamships whose engines are probably, in the aggregate, far more powerful than were all the engines in the world at the date of Watt"s birth, January 19, 1736. His grandfather, Thomas Watt, of Crawfordsd.y.k.e, near Greenock, was a well-known mathematician about the year 1700, and was for many years a schoolmaster at that place. His father was a prominent citizen of Greenock, and was at various times chief magistrate and treasurer of the town. James Watt was a bright boy, but exceedingly delicate in health, and quite unable to attend school regularly, or to apply himself closely to either study or play.
His early education was given by his parents, who were respectable and intelligent people, and the tools borrowed from his father"s carpenter-bench served at once to amuse him and to give him a dexterity and familiarity with their use that must undoubtedly have been of inestimable value to him in after-life.
M. Arago, the eminent French philosopher, who wrote one of the earliest and most interesting biographies of Watt, relates anecdotes of him which, if correct, ill.u.s.trate well his thoughtfulness and his intelligence, as well as the mechanical bent of the boy"s mind. He is said, at the age of six years, to have occupied himself during leisure hours with the solution of geometrical problems; and Arago discovers, in a story in which he is described as experimenting with the tea-kettle,[35] his earliest investigations of the nature and properties of steam.
[35] The same story is told of Savery and of Worcester.
When finally sent to the village school, his ill health prevented his making rapid progress; and it was only when thirteen or fourteen years of age that he began to show that he was capable of taking the lead in his cla.s.s, and to exhibit his ability in the study, particularly, of mathematics. His spare time was princ.i.p.ally spent in sketching with his pencil, in carving, and in working at the bench, both in wood and metal. He made many ingenious pieces of mechanism, and some beautiful models. His favorite work seemed to be the repairing of nautical instruments. Among other pieces of apparatus made by the boy was a very fine barrel-organ. In boyhood, as in after-life, he was a diligent reader, and seemed to find something to interest him in every book that came into his hands.
At the age of eighteen, Watt was sent to Glasgow, there to reside with his mother"s relatives, and to learn the trade of a mathematical-instrument maker. The mechanic with whom he was placed was soon found too indolent, or was otherwise incapable of giving much aid in the project, and Dr. d.i.c.k, of the University of Glasgow, with whom Watt became acquainted, advised him to go to London.
Accordingly, he set out in June, 1755, for the metropolis, where, on his arrival, he arranged with Mr. John Morgan, in Cornhill, to work a year at his chosen business, receiving as compensation 20 guineas. At the end of the year he was compelled, by serious ill-health, to return home.
Having become restored to health, he went again to Glasgow in 1756, with the intention of pursuing his calling there. But, not being the son of a burgess, and not having served his apprenticeship in the town, he was forbidden by the guilds, or trades-unions, to open a shop in Glasgow. Dr. d.i.c.k came to his aid, and employed him to repair some apparatus which had been bequeathed to the college. He was finally allowed the use of three rooms in the University building, its authorities not being under the munic.i.p.al rule. He remained here until 1760, when, the trades no longer objecting, he took a shop in the city; and in 1761 moved again, into a shop on the north side of the Trongate, where he earned a scanty living without molestation, and still kept up his connection with the college. He did some work as a civil engineer in the neighborhood of Glasgow, but soon gave up all other employment, and devoted himself entirely to mechanics.
He spent much of his leisure time--of which he had, at first, more than was desirable--in making philosophical experiments and in the manufacture of musical instruments, in making himself familiar with the sciences, and in devising improvements in the construction of organs. In order to pursue his researches more satisfactorily, he studied German and Italian, and read Smith"s "Harmonics," that he might become familiar with the principles of construction of musical instruments. His reading was still very desultory; but the introduction of the Newcomen engine in the neighborhood of Glasgow, and the presence of a model in the college collections, which was placed in his hands, in 1763, for repair, led him to study the history of the steam-engine, and to conduct for himself an experimental research into the properties of steam, with a set of improvised apparatus.
Dr. Robison, then a student of the University, who found Watt"s shop a pleasant place in which to spend his leisure, and whose tastes affiliated so strongly with those of Watt that they became friends immediately upon making acquaintance, called the attention of the instrument-maker to the steam-engine as early as 1759, and suggested that it might be applied to the propulsion of carriages. Watt was at once interested, and went to work on a little model, having tin steam-cylinders and pistons connected to the driving-wheels by an intermediate system of gearing. The scheme was afterwards given up, and was not revived by Watt for a quarter of a century.
Watt studied chemistry, and was a.s.sisted by the advice and instruction of Dr. Black, who was then making the researches which resulted in the discovery of "latent heat." His proposal to repair the model Newcomen engine in the college collections led to his study of Desaguliers"s treatise, and of the works of Switzer and others. He thus learned what had been done by Savery and by Newcomen, and by those who had improved the engine of the latter.
In his own experiments he used, at first, apothecaries" phials and hollow canes for steam reservoirs and pipes, and later a Papin"s digester and a common syringe. The latter combination made a non-condensing engine, in which he used steam at a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. The valve was worked by hand, and Watt saw that an automatic valve-gear only was needed to make a working machine. This experiment, however, led to no practical result. He finally took hold of the Newcomen model, which had been obtained from London, where it had been sent for repairs, and, putting it in good working order, commenced experiments with that.
The Newcomen model, as it happened, had a boiler which, although made to a scale from engines in actual use, was quite incapable of furnishing steam enough to work the engine. It was about nine inches in diameter; the steam-cylinder was two inches in diameter, and of six inches stroke of piston, arranged as in Fig. 24, which is a picture of the model as it now appears. It is retained among the most carefully-preserved treasures of the University of Glasgow.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 24.--The Newcomen Model.]
Watt made a new boiler for the experimental investigation on which he was about to enter, and arranged it in such a manner that he could measure the quant.i.ty of water evaporated and of steam used at every stroke of the engine.
He soon discovered that it required but a very small quant.i.ty of steam to heat a very large quant.i.ty of water, and immediately attempted to determine with precision the relative weights of steam and water in the steam-cylinder when condensation took place at the down-stroke of the engine, and thus independently proved the existence of that "latent heat," the discovery of which const.i.tutes, also, one of the greatest of Dr. Black"s claims to distinction. Watt at once went to Dr. Black and related the remarkable fact which he had thus detected, and was, in turn, taught by Black the character of the phenomenon as it had been explained to his cla.s.ses by the latter some little time previously. Watt found that, at the boiling-point, his steam, condensing, was capable of heating six times its weight of water such as was used for producing condensation.
Perceiving that steam, weight for weight even, was a vastly greater absorbent and reservoir of heat than water, Watt saw plainly the importance of taking greater care to economize it than had previously been customary. He first attempted to economize in the boiler, and made boilers with wooden "sh.e.l.ls," in order to prevent losses by conduction and radiation, and used a larger number of flues to secure more complete absorption of the heat from the furnace-gases. He also covered his steam-pipes with non-conducting materials, and took every precaution that his ingenuity could devise to secure complete utilization of the heat of combustion. He soon found, however, that he was not working at the most important point, and that the great source of loss was to be found in defects which he noted in the action of the steam in the cylinder. He soon concluded that the sources of loss of heat in the Newcomen engine--which would be greatly exaggerated in a small model--were:
First, the dissipation of heat by the cylinder itself, which was of bra.s.s, and was both a good conductor and a good radiator.
Secondly, the loss of heat consequent upon the necessity of cooling down the cylinder at every stroke, in producing the vacuum.
Thirdly, the loss of power due to the pressure of vapor beneath the piston, which was a consequence of the imperfect method of condensation.
He first made a cylinder of non-conducting material--wood soaked in oil and then baked--and obtained a decided advantage in economy of steam. He then conducted a series of very accurate experiments upon the temperature and pressure of steam at such points on the scale as he could readily reach, and, constructing a curve with his results, the abscesses representing temperatures and the pressures being represented by the ordinates, he ran the curve backward until he had obtained closely-approximate measures of temperatures less than 212, and pressures less than atmospheric. He thus found that, with the amount of injection-water used in the Newcomen engine, bringing the temperature of the interior, as he found, down to from 140 to 175 Fahr., a very considerable back-pressure would be met with.
Continuing his examination still further, he measured the amount of steam used at each stroke, and, comparing it with the quant.i.ty that would just fill the cylinder, he found that at least _three-fourths was wasted_. The quant.i.ty of cold water necessary to produce the condensation of a given weight of steam was next determined; and he found that one pound of steam contained enough heat to raise about six pounds of cold water, as used for condensation, from the temperature of 52 to the boiling-point; and, going still further, he found that he was compelled to use, at each stroke of the Newcomen engine, _four times as much injection-water as should suffice to condense a cylinder full of steam_. This confirmed his previous conclusion that three-fourths of the heat supplied to the engine was wasted.
Watt had now, therefore, determined by his own researches, as he himself enumerates them,[36] the following facts:
[36] Robison"s "Mechanical Philosophy," edited by Brewster.
"1. The capacities for heat of iron, copper, and of some sorts of wood, as compared with water.
"2. The bulk of steam compared with that of water.
"3. The quant.i.ty of water evaporated in a certain boiler by a pound of coal.
"4. The elasticities of steam at various temperatures greater than that of boiling water, and an approximation to the law which it follows at other temperatures.
"5. How much water in the form of steam was required every stroke by a small Newcomen engine, with a wooden cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches stroke.
"6. The quant.i.ty of cold water required in every stroke to condense the steam in that cylinder, so as to give it a working-power of about 7 pounds on the square inch."
After these well-devised and truly scientific investigations, Watt was enabled to enter upon his work of improving the steam-engine with an intelligent understanding of its existing defects, and with a knowledge of their cause. Watt soon saw that, in order to reduce the losses in the working of the steam in the steam-cylinder, it would be necessary to find some means, as he said, to keep the cylinder "always as hot as the steam that entered it," notwithstanding the great fluctuations of temperature and pressure of the steam during the up and the down strokes. He has told us how, finally, the happy thought occurred to him which relieved him of all difficulty, and led to the series of modifications which at last gave to the world the modern type of steam-engine.
He says:[37] "I had gone to take a walk on a fine Sabbath afternoon. I had entered the Green by the gate at the foot of Charlotte street, and had pa.s.sed the old washing-house. I was thinking upon the engine at the time, and had gone as far as the herd"s house, when the idea came into my mind that, as steam was an elastic body, it would rush into a vacuum, and, if a communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it, and might be there condensed without cooling the cylinder. I then saw that I must get rid of the condensed steam and injection-water if I used a jet, as in Newcomen"s engine. Two ways of doing this occurred to me: First, the water might be run off by a descending pipe, if an offlet could be got at the depth of 35 or 36 feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. The second was, to make the pump large enough to extract both water and air." "I had not walked farther than the Golf-house, when the whole thing was arranged in my mind."
[37] "Reminiscences of James Watt," Robert Hart; "Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeological Society," 1859.
Referring to this invention, Watt said to Prof. Jardine:[38] "When a.n.a.lyzed, the invention would not appear so great as it seemed to be.
In the state in which I found the steam-engine, it was no great effort of mind to observe that the quant.i.ty of fuel necessary to make it work would forever prevent its extensive utility. The next step in my progress was equally easy--to inquire what was the cause of the great consumption of fuel. This, too, was readily suggested, viz., the waste of fuel which was necessary to bring the whole cylinder, piston, and adjacent parts from the coldness of water to the heat of steam, no fewer than from 15 to 20 times in a minute." It was by pursuing this train of thought that he was led to devise the separate condenser.
[38] "Lives of Boulton and Watt," Smiles.
On Monday morning Watt proceeded to make an experimental test of his new invention, using for his steam-cylinder and piston a large bra.s.s surgeon"s-syringe, 1-3/4-inch diameter and 10 inches long. At each end was a pipe leading steam from the boiler, and fitted with a c.o.c.k to act as a steam-valve. A pipe led also from the top of the cylinder to the condenser, the syringe being inverted and the piston-rod hanging downward for convenience. The condenser was made of two pipes of thin tin plate, 10 or 12 inches long, and about one-sixth of an inch in diameter, standing vertically, and having a connection at the top with a horizontal pipe of larger size, and fitted with a "snifting-valve." Another vertical pipe, about an inch in diameter, was connected to the condenser, and was fitted with a piston, with a view to using it as an "air-pump." The whole was set in a cistern of cold water. The piston-rod of the little steam-cylinder was drilled from end to end to permit the water to be removed from the cylinder.
This little model (Fig. 25) worked very satisfactorily, and the perfection of the vacuum was such that the machine lifted a weight of 18 pounds hung upon the piston-rod, as in the sketch. A larger model was immediately afterward constructed, and the result of its test confirmed fully the antic.i.p.ations which had been awakened by the first experiment.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 25.--Watt"s Experiment.]
Having taken this first step and made such a radical improvement, the success of this invention was no sooner determined than others followed in rapid succession, as consequences of the exigencies arising from the first change in the old Newcomen engine. But in the working out of the forms and proportions of the details of the new engine, even Watt"s powerful mind, stored as it was with happily-combined scientific and practical information, was occupied for years. In attaching the separate condenser, he first attempted surface-condensation; but this not succeeding well, he subst.i.tuted the jet. Some provision became at once necessary for preventing the filling of the condenser with water.
Watt at first intended adopting the expedient which had worked satisfactorily with the less effective condensation of Newcomen"s engine--i. e., leading a pipe from the condenser to a depth greater than the height of a column of water which could be counterbalanced by the pressure of the atmosphere; but he subsequently employed the air-pump, which relieves the condenser not only of the water, but of the air which also usually collects in considerable volume in the condenser, and vitiates the vacuum. He next subst.i.tuted oil and tallow for water in the lubrication of the piston and keeping it steam-tight, in order to avoid the cooling of the cylinder incident to the use of the latter. Another cause of refrigeration of the cylinder, and consequent waste of power in its operation, was seen to be the entrance of the atmosphere, which followed the piston down the cylinder at each stroke, cooling its interior by its contact. This the inventor concluded to prevent by covering the top of the cylinder, allowing the piston-rod to play through a "stuffing-box"--which device had long been known to mechanics.
He accordingly not only covered the top, but surrounded the whole cylinder with an external casing, or "steam-jacket," and allowed the steam from the boiler to pa.s.s around the steam-cylinder and to press upon the upper surface of the piston, where its pressure was variable at pleasure, and therefore more manageable than that of the atmosphere. It also, besides keeping the cylinder hot, could do comparatively little harm should it leak by the piston, as it could be condensed, and thus readily disposed of.
When he had concluded to build the larger experimental engine, Watt determined to give his whole time and attention to the work, and hired a room in an old deserted pottery near the Broomielaw. Here he worked with a mechanic--John Gardiner, whom he had taken into his employ--uninterruptedly for many weeks. Meantime, through his friend Dr. Black, probably, he had made the acquaintance of Dr. Roebuck, a wealthy physician, who had, with other Scotch capitalists, just founded the celebrated Carron Iron-Works, and had opened a correspondence with him, in which he kept that gentleman informed of the progress of his work on the new engine.
This engine had a steam-cylinder, Watt tells us, of "five or six"
inches diameter, and of two feet stroke. It was of copper, smooth-hammered, but not bored out, and "not very true." This was encased in another cylinder of wood. In August, 1765, he tried the small engine, and wrote Dr. Roebuck that he had had "good success,"
although the machine was very imperfect. "On turning the exhausting-c.o.c.k, the piston, when not loaded, ascended as quick as the blow of a hammer, and as quick when loaded with 18 pounds (being 7 pounds on the inch) as it would have done if it had had an injection as usual." He then tells his correspondent that he was about to make the larger model. In October, 1765, he finished the latter. The engine, when ready for trial, was still very imperfect. It nevertheless did good work for so rude a machine.