Students, in recording the weights, should first read off those missing from the box, writing down each order of figures as determined; first tens, then units, and so on. Remember that the first four platinum weights give the figures of the first place of decimals, the second four give the second place, and that the third and fourth places are given by the rider. Having taken down the figures, confirm them by reading off the weights as you put them back into the box. Do not rest a weight on the palm of your hand for convenience in reading the mark upon it.

Remember one weight lost from a box spoils the set. Do not take it for granted that the balance is in equilibrium before you start weighing: try it.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 26.]

~Measuring Liquids.~--For coa.r.s.e work, such as measuring acids for dissolving ores, graduated gla.s.ses similar to those used by druggists may be used. It is well to have two sizes--a smaller graduated into divisions of 5 c.c. (fig. 26), and a larger with divisions equal to 10 c.c. No measurement of importance should be made in a vessel of this kind, as a slight variation in level causes a serious error.

~Graduated flasks~ must be used when anything has to be made up to a definite bulk, or when a fixed volume has to be collected. If, for example, a certain weight of substance has to be dissolved and diluted to a litre, or if the first 50 c.c. of a distillate has to be collected, a flask should be used. Each flask is graduated for one particular quant.i.ty; the most useful sizes are 1000 c.c., 500 c.c., 200 c.c., 100 c.c., and 50 c.c. The mark should be in the narrowest part of the neck, and should be tangential to the curved surface of the liquid when the flask _contains_ the exact volume specified. The level of a curved surface of liquid is at first somewhat difficult to read: the beginner is in doubt whether the surface should be taken at A, B, or C (fig. 27).

It is best to take the lowest reading C. In some lights it is difficult to find this; in such cases a piece of white paper or card held behind and a little below, so as to throw light up and against the curved surface, will render it clear. In reading, one should look neither up at nor down upon the surface, but the eye should be on the same level with it. It must be kept in mind that flasks _contain_ the quant.i.ty specified, but deliver less than this by the amount remaining in them and damping the sides. If it is desired to transfer the contents say of a 100 c.c. flask to a beaker, it will be necessary to complete the transfer by rinsing out the flask and adding the washings; otherwise there will be a sensible loss. Graduated cylinders (fig. 28) are convenient for preparing standard solutions.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 27.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 28.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 29.]

~Pipettes~ and burettes are graduated to _deliver_ the quant.i.ties specified. The principle of the pipette, and the advantages and disadvantages of its various forms, may be understood by considering the first form shown in fig. 29. It is essentially a bulbed tube drawn out to a jet at its lower end, and having on each side of the bulb a mark so placed that when the surface of the liquid falls from the upper to the lower mark the instrument shall deliver exactly 100 c.c. The bore of the jet should be of such a size as will allow the level of the liquid to fall at the rate of about one foot in two minutes. If it runs more quickly than this, an appreciable error arises from the varying amount of liquid remaining, and damping the sides of the bulb. The flow of liquid from a pipette must not be hastened by blowing into it. The lower tube or nose of the pipette should be long enough to reach into the bottle or flask containing the liquid about to be measured. The pipette is filled by sucking at the open end with the mouth; this method of filling renders the use of the instrument dangerous for such liquids as strong acids, ammonia, and such poisonous solutions as that of pota.s.sic cyanide. One attempt with a fairly strong solution of ammonia will teach the beginner a very useful lesson. As soon as the liquid rises above the upper mark in the pipette, the mouth is withdrawn, and the pipette quickly closed by pressing the upper aperture with the index finger of the right hand; it is well to have the finger slightly moist, but not damp. The neck of the pipette should be long enough to allow its being firmly grasped by the fingers and thumb of the right hand without inconvenience. The pipette is first held in a vertical position long enough to allow any moisture outside the tube to run down, and then the liquid is allowed to run out to the level of the upper mark; this is easily effected by lessening the pressure. If the finger is wet, the flow will be jerky, and good work impossible. The pipette is next held over the vessel into which the 100 c.c. are to be put, and the liquid allowed to run out. When the bulb is nearly empty, the flow should be checked by replacing the finger, and the liquid allowed to escape slowly until the lower mark is reached. The pipette is then withdrawn; it is in the withdrawing that the disadvantage of this particular form[5] makes itself felt. It must be withdrawn very steadily, as the slightest shock causes the remaining column of liquid to vibrate, whereby air is drawn in and the liquid is forced out.

This disadvantage is got rid of by making the mouth of the jet the lower limit, or, in other words, allowing the instrument to empty itself.

There are two forms of such pipettes; in the one generally recommended in Gay-Lussac"s silver a.s.say (the last shown in fig. 29) the nose is replaced by a jet. This is most conveniently filled by stopping the jet with the finger, and allowing the liquid to flow in a fine stream into the neck until the pipette is filled, and then working as just described. The other form is the one in general use; in fact, a long nose to a pipette is so convenient that it may almost be said to be necessary. But the accuracy is slightly diminished; a long narrow tube makes a poor measuring instrument because of the amount of liquid it finally retains. A defect possessed by both forms is the retention of a drop of varying size in the nozzle. Whatever method is adopted for removing this drop must be always adhered to. The most convenient form is the one last described, and the most useful sizes are 100 c.c., 50 c.c., 20 c.c., 10 c.c., and 5 c.c. Ten c.c. pipettes graduated into tenths of a cubic centimetre are very useful: those are best in which the graduation stops short of the bottom.

All measurements should be made at the ordinary temperature; and, before being used, the pipette should be rinsed out with a cubic centimetre or so of the solution to be measured. After using, it should be washed out with water.

~Burettes~ differ mainly from pipettes in having the flow of liquid controlled from below instead of from above. The best form is that known as Mohr"s, one kind of which is provided with a gla.s.s stopc.o.c.k, while the other has a piece of india-rubber tube compressed by a clip. The latter cannot be used for solutions of permanganate of potash or of iodine, or of any substance which acts on india-rubber; but in other respects there is little to choose between the two kinds. A burette delivering 100 c.c., and graduated into fifths (_i.e._, each division = 0.2 c.c.), is a very convenient size. For some kinds of work, 50 c.c.

divided into tenths (_i.e._, each division = 0.1 c.c.) may be selected.

Burettes may be fixed in any convenient stand; they must be vertical and should be so placed that the a.s.sayer can read any part of the graduated scale without straining. When not in use, they should be kept full of water. When using a burette, the water must be run out; the burette is next rinsed with some of the solution to be used, and drained; and then it is filled with the solution. Next squeeze the india-rubber tube so as to disentangle air-bubbles and, by smartly opening the clip, allow the tube and jet to be filled; see that no bubbles of air are left. Then run out cautiously until the level of the liquid in the burette stands at zero. In reading the level with very dark-coloured liquids it is convenient to read from the level A (fig. 27), and, provided it is done in each reading, there is no objection to this. The accuracy of the reading of a burette is sensibly increased by the use of an Erdmann float. This is an elongated bulb, weighted with mercury, and fitting (somewhat loosely) the tube of the burette. It floats in the solution, and is marked with a horizontal line; this line is taken as the level of the liquid. If the burette is filled from the top, the float rises with aggravating slowness, and this is its chief disadvantage. The float must come to rest before any reading is made.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 30.]

A convenient plan for filling a burette from below is shown in fig. 30.

The diagram explains itself. The bottle containing the standard solution is connected with the burette by a syphon arrangement through the gla.s.s tube and T-piece. The flow of liquid into the burette is controlled by the clip. When this clip is opened, the burette fills; and when it is closed, the burette is ready for use in the ordinary way.

~Measuring Gases.~--Lange"s nitrometer (fig. 69) is a very convenient instrument for many gasometric methods. It requires the use of a fair quant.i.ty of mercury. In fig. 31, there is a representation of a piece of apparatus easily fitted up from the ordinary material of a laboratory.

It is one which will serve some useful purposes. It consists of a wide-mouthed bottle fitted (by preference) with a rubber cork. The cork is perforated, and in the perforation is placed a gla.s.s tube which communicates with the burette. The burette is connected by a rubber tube and a Y-piece, either with another burette or with a piece of ordinary combustion-tube of about the same size. The wide-mouthed bottle contains either a short test-tube or an ordinary phial with its neck cut off. In working the apparatus the weighed substance is put in the bottle and the re-agent which is to act on it, in the test-tube; the cork is then inserted. The liquid in the two burettes is next brought to the same level, either by pouring it in at A or running it out at B. The level of the liquid in the apparatus for correcting variation in volume is then read and noted. Next, after seeing that the level of the liquid in the burette has not changed, turn the bottle over on its side so that the re-agent in the test-tube shall be upset into the bottle. Then, as the volume of the gas increases, lower the liquid in the burette by running it out at B, and at the same time keep the level in A half an inch or so lower than that in the burette. When the action has finished bring the liquid in the two vessels to the same level and read off the burette.

This part of the work must always be done in the same manner.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 31.]

_The volume corrector for gas a.n.a.lysis_ is a graduated gla.s.s tube of 120 c.c. capacity inverted over a narrow gla.s.s cylinder of mercury. It contains 0.2 or 0.3 c.c. of water and a volume of air, which, if dry and under standard conditions, would measure 100 c.c. The actual volume varies from day to day, and is read off at any time by bringing the mercury inside and outside to the same level. This is done by raising or lowering the tube, as may be required. Any volume of gas obtained in an a.s.say can be corrected to standard temperature and pressure by multiplying by 100 and dividing by the number of c.c. in the corrector at the time the a.s.say is made.

FOOTNOTES:

[5] It is best to use this form with a gla.s.s stopc.o.c.k, or with an india-rubber tube and clip, after the manner of a Mohr"s burette.

CHAPTER VI.

RE-AGENTS.--ACIDS, ETC.

~Acetic Acid~, H[=A=c] or C_{2}H_{4}O_{2}. (sp. gr. 1.044, containing 33 per cent. real acid).--An organic acid, forming a cla.s.s of salts, acetates, which are for the most part soluble in water, and which, on ignition, leave the oxide or carbonate of the metal. It is almost always used in those cases where mineral acids are objectionable. To convert, for example, a solution of a substance in hydrochloric acid into a solution of the same in acetic acid, alkali should be added in excess and then acetic acid. Many compounds are insoluble in acetic acid, which are soluble in mineral acids, such as ferric phosphate, ferric a.r.s.enate, zinc sulphide, calcium oxalate, &c., so that the use of acetic acid is valuable in some separations. The commercial acid is strong enough for most purposes, and is used without dilution.

~"Aqua Regia"~ is a mixture of 1 part by measure of nitric acid and 3 parts of hydrochloric acid. The acids react forming what is practically a solution of chlorine.[6] The mixture is best made when wanted, and is chiefly used for the solution of gold and platinum and for "opening up"

sulphides. When solutions in aqua regia are evaporated, chlorides are left.

~Bromine~, Br. (sp. gr. 3.0). Practically pure bromine.--It is a heavy reddish-brown liquid and very volatile. It boils at 60 C., and, consequently, must be kept in a cool place. It gives off brown irritating vapours, which render its use very objectionable. Generally it answers the same purpose as aqua regia, and is employed where the addition of nitric acid to a solution has to be specially avoided. It is also used for dissolving metals only from ores which contain metallic oxides not desired in the solution.

~"Bromine Water"~ is simply bromine shaken up with water till no more is dissolved.

~Carbonic Acid~, CO_{2}.--A heavy gas, somewhat soluble in water; it is mainly used for providing an atmosphere in which substances may be dissolved, t.i.trated, &c., without fear of oxidation. It is also used in t.i.trating a.r.s.enic a.s.says with "iodine" when a feeble acid is required to prevent the absorption of iodine by the alkaline carbonate. It is prepared when wanted in solution, by adding a gram or so of bicarbonate of soda and then as much acid as will decompose the bicarbonate mentioned. When a quant.i.ty of the gas is wanted, it is prepared, in an apparatus like that used for sulphuretted hydrogen, by acting on fragments of marble or limestone with dilute hydrochloric acid.

~Citric Acid~ (H_{3}[=C=i] or C_{6}H_{8}O_{7}.H_{2}O) is an organic acid which occurs in colourless crystals, soluble in less than their weight of water. The solution must be freshly prepared, as it gets mouldy when kept. It forms a comparatively unimportant cla.s.s of salts (citrates). It is used in the determination of phosphoric acid, chiefly for the purpose of preventing the precipitation of phosphates of iron and alumina by ammonia, and in a few similar cases. The commercial crystals are used; they should be free from sulphuric acid and leave no ash on ignition.

~Hydrochloric Acid~, HCl in water, (sp. gr. 1.16. It contains 32 per cent. of hydrogen chloride).--It is sometimes called "muriatic acid,"

and when impure, "spirit of salt." The acid solution should be colourless and free from a.r.s.enic, iron, and sulphuric acid. It forms an important family of salts, the chlorides. It is the best acid for dissolving metallic oxides and carbonates, and is always used by the a.s.sayer when oxidising agents are to be avoided. The acid is used without dilution when no directions are expressly given to dilute it. It has no action on the following metals: gold, platinum, a.r.s.enic, and mercury; it very slightly attacks antimony, bis.m.u.th, lead, silver, and copper. Tin is more soluble in it, but with difficulty; whilst iron, zinc, nickel, cobalt, cadmium, and aluminium easily dissolve with evolution of hydrogen and the formation of the lower chloride if the metal forms more than one cla.s.s of salts. All the metallic oxides, except a few of the native and rarer oxides, are dissolved by it with the formation of chlorides of the metal and water.

~Dilute Hydrochloric Acid~ is made by diluting the strong acid with an equal volume of water. This is used for dissolving precipitates obtained in the general course of a.n.a.lysis and the more easily soluble metals.

~Hydrofluoric Acid, HF.~--A solution in water may be purchased in gutta-percha or lead bottles. It is of variable strength and doubtful purity. It must always be examined quant.i.tatively for the residue left on evaporation. It is used occasionally for the examination of silicates. It attacks silica, forming fluoride of silicon, which is a gas. When the introduction of another base will not interfere with the a.s.say, the substance may be mixed in the platinum dish with fluoride of ammonium, or of pota.s.sium, or of calcium, and hydrochloric acid, instead of treating it with the commercial acid. It is only required in special work. The fumes and acid are dangerous, and, of course, gla.s.s or porcelain vessels cannot be used with it.

~Iodine, I.~--This can be obtained in commerce quite pure, and is often used for standardising. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in pota.s.sium iodide solution. It closely resembles chlorine and bromine in its properties, and can be used for dissolving metals without, at the same time, attacking any oxide which may be present. It is chiefly used as an oxidizing agent in volumetric work, being sharp in its reactions and easily detected in minute quant.i.ties.

It cannot be used in alkaline solutions, since it reacts with the hydrates, and even with the carbonates, to form iodides and iodates.

Iodine is soluble in alcohol.

~Nitric Acid, HNO_{3}.~ (Sp. gr. 1.42; boiling point 121 C.; contains 70 per cent. by weight of hydrogen nitrate).--It is convenient to remember that one c.c. of this contains 1 gram of real acid. It combines the properties of an acid and of an oxidising agent. One c.c. contains 0.76 gram of oxygen, most of which is very loosely held, and easily given up to metals and other oxidisable substances. Consequently it will dissolve many metals, &c., upon which hydrochloric acid has no action.

All sulphides (that of mercury excepted) are attacked by it, and for the most part rendered soluble. It has no action on gold or platinum, and very little on aluminium. The strong acid at the ordinary temperature does not act on iron or tin; and in most cases it acts better when diluted. Some nitrates being insoluble in nitric acid, form a protecting coat to the metal which hinders further action. Where the strong acid does act the action is very violent, so that generally it is better to use the dilute acid. When iron has been immersed in strong nitric acid it not only remains unacted on, but a.s.sumes a _pa.s.sive_ state; so that if, after being wiped, it is then placed in the dilute acid, it will not dissolve. Tin and antimony are converted into insoluble oxides, while the other metals (with the exception of those already mentioned) dissolve as nitrates. During the solution of the metal red fumes are given off, which mainly consist of nitrogen peroxide. The solution is often coloured brown or green because of dissolved oxides of nitrogen, which must be got rid of by boiling. Generally some ammonium nitrate is formed, especially in the cases of zinc, iron, and tin, when these are acted on by cold dilute acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, and a.r.s.enic are converted into sulphuric, phosphoric, and a.r.s.enic acids respectively, when boiled with the strong acid.

~Dilute Nitric Acid.~--Dilute 1 volume of the strong acid with 2 of water.

~Oxalic Acid~, H_{2}[=O] or (H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}.2H_{2}O.)--This is an organic acid in colourless crystals. It forms a family of salts--the oxalates.

It is used in standardising; being a crystallised and permanent acid, it can be readily weighed. It is also used in separations, many of the oxalates being insoluble. For general use make a 10 per cent. solution.

Use the commercially pure acid. On ignition the acid should leave no residue.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 32.]

~Sulphuretted Hydrogen.~ Hydrosulphuric acid, SH_{2}.--A gas largely used in a.s.saying, since by its action it allows of the metals being conveniently cla.s.sed into groups. It is soluble in water, this liquid dissolving at the ordinary temperature about three times its volume of the gas. The solution is only useful for testing. In separations, a current of the gas must always be used. It is best prepared in an apparatus like that shown in fig. 32, by acting on ferrous sulphide with dilute hydrochloric acid. When iron has to be subsequently determined in the a.s.say solution, the gas should be washed by bubbling it through water in the smaller bottle; but for most purposes washing can be dispensed with. The gas is very objectionable, and operations with it must be carried out in a cupboard with a good draught. When the precipitation has been completed, the apparatus should always be washed out. The effect of this acid on solutions of the metals is to form sulphides. All the metallic sulphides are insoluble in water; but some are soluble in alkaline, and some in acid, solutions. If sulphuretted hydrogen is pa.s.sed through an acid solution containing the metals till no further precipitation takes place, a precipitate will be formed containing sulphides insoluble in the acid. On filtering, adding ammonia (to render the filtrate alkaline), and again pa.s.sing the gas, a further precipitate will be obtained, consisting of sulphides insoluble in an alkaline solution, but not precipitable in an acid one; the filtrate may also contain sulphides not precipitable in an acid solution, which are soluble in an alkaline one; these will be thrown down on neutralising.

Again, the metals precipitated in the acid solution form sulphides which may be divided into groups, the one consisting of those which are soluble, and the other of those which are not soluble, in alkalies. This cla.s.sification is shown in the following summary:--

1. _Precipitable in an acid solution._

(a) Soluble in Alkalies.--Sulphides of As, Sb, Sn, Au, Pt, Ir, Mo, Te, and Se.

(b) Insoluble in Alkalies.--Sulphides of Ag, Pb, Hg, Bi, Cu, Cd, Pd, Rh, Os, and Ru.

2. _Not precipitated in an acid solution, but thrown down in an alkaline one._

Sulphides of Mn, Zn, Fe, Ni, Co, In, Tl, and Ga.