20. Mr. B., as he was known to the men Mr. B., as he was known to the men: Interview with Edward Lovick.

21. Hank Meierdierck Hank Meierdierck: The stories of Hank Meierdierck, the man who trained the U-2 pilots at Area 51, were relayed to me by his friends from the old days at the Ranch as well as from his personal papers, which were made available to me by his wife, Millie Meierdierck.

22. "unconventional way" "unconventional way": Killian, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, 82. Killian wrote, "Eisenhower approved the development of the U-2 system, but he stipulated that it should be handled in an unconditional way so that it would not become entangled in the bureaucracy of the Defense Department or troubled by rivalries among the services." Also see Bissell, 82. Killian wrote, "Eisenhower approved the development of the U-2 system, but he stipulated that it should be handled in an unconditional way so that it would not become entangled in the bureaucracy of the Defense Department or troubled by rivalries among the services." Also see Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 95. 95.

23. hidden from Congress hidden from Congress: Top Secret Memorandum of Conference with the President 0810, 24 November 1954. "Authorization was sought from the President to go ahead on a program to produce thirty, special high performance aircraft at a cost of about $35 million. The President approved this action. Mr. Allen Dulles indicated that his organization could not finance this whole sum without drawing attention to it, and it was agreed that Defense would seek to carry a substantial part of the financing." From the Eisenhower Archives, DDE"s Papers as President, Ann Whitman Diary Series, Box 3, ACW Diary, November 1954.

24. stand-alone organization stand-alone organization: Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 105. Bissell wrote, "To preserve the secrecy and expeditiousness that Eisenhower and Allen Dulles insisted on, I argued for removing the U-2 project from the agency"s organizational chart and setting it up as a stand-alone organization. As a result, the entire project became the most compartmented and self-contained activity within the agency." 105. Bissell wrote, "To preserve the secrecy and expeditiousness that Eisenhower and Allen Dulles insisted on, I argued for removing the U-2 project from the agency"s organizational chart and setting it up as a stand-alone organization. As a result, the entire project became the most compartmented and self-contained activity within the agency."

25. five-page brief five-page brief: Eisenhower was uniquely invested in Area 51 because the success of the U-2 program, which came to be during his administration, was critical to the nation"s security.

26. the Air Force was almost entirely left out the Air Force was almost entirely left out: As recalled by General Leo Geary, Bissell"s Air Force deputy, in an interview with Jonathan Lewis, tape recording, Chevy Chase, MD, 11 February 1994; Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 100. 100.

27. LeMay was, understandably, enraged LeMay was, understandably, enraged: "Eventually President Eisenhower settled the dispute." Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 60; Bissell, 60; Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 109. 109.

28. the president"s decision the president"s decision: "I want this whole thing to be a civilian operation," the president wrote. "If uniformed personnel of the armed services of the United States fly over Russia, it is an act of war-legally-and I don"t want any part of it."" From Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 60. 60.

29. Bob Murphy would often chat with George Pappas Bob Murphy would often chat with George Pappas: Interview with Bob Murphy.

30. Had Pappas been just thirty feet higher Had Pappas been just thirty feet higher: From Hank Meierdierck"s personal papers; Meierdierck located the crash remains from a U-2 he took out on a search mission.

31. the CIA acknowledged the plane crash in 2002 the CIA acknowledged the plane crash in 2002: As part of a tribute given by the U.S. Forest Service. The CIA did not, however, acknowledge that the aircraft was traveling to Area 51; also see Kyril Plaskon, Silent Heroes. Silent Heroes.

32. security systems for Air Force One security systems for Air Force One: EG&G, a Division of URS, Albuquerque Operations Web site. "EG&G has provided security systems for U.S. Government facilities: Department of Energy Headquarters, U.S. Bureau of Engraving, Presidential AF-1 Hangar Complex, Rocky Flats [nuclear weapons production facility in Colorado], Tooele [Utah, Army Depot for WMD]."

Chapter Four: The Seeds of a Conspiracy.

Interviews: Lieutenant Colonel Tony Bevacqua, Edward Lovick, Ray Goudey, Al O"Donnell, Jim Freedman, Wayne Pendleton, T. D. Barnes 1. Area 51, reports of UFO sightings Area 51, reports of UFO sightings: Haines, "CIA"s Role," 73.

2. U-2 look like a fiery flying cross U-2 look like a fiery flying cross: Interview with Tony Bevacqua; the wingspan is 103 feet and the fuselage is 63 feet.

3. the crash at Roswell occurred the crash at Roswell occurred: Hereafter, when I refer to the "crash at Roswell," I am referring to an aircraft, not a balloon, as has also been written. While there was a balloon-borne radar-reflector project going on at White Sands in the summer of 1947, this is not what crashed at Roswell. To learn about that project and the balloon theory put forth by one of its partic.i.p.ants, Charles B. Moore, see Saler, Ziegler, and Moore, UFO Crash at Roswell. UFO Crash at Roswell.

4. Project Sign Project Sign: U.S. Air Force Air Materiel Command, "Unidentified Aerial Objects; Project SIGN"; Haines, "CIA"s Role," 68.

5. Project Grudge Project Grudge: U.S. Air Force, Project Grudge and Blue Book, Reports 112. Since the decla.s.sification of Projects Saucer, Sign, Grudge, Twinkle, and Blue Book, which began incrementally in the 1970s, the collection is housed in the National Archives; see disliked technology in general disliked technology in general: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 17, "High alt.i.tude reconnaissance of the Soviet Union did not fit well into Allen Dulles"s perception of the proper role of an intelligence agency. He tended to favor the cla.s.sical form of espionage, which relied on agents rather than technology." Allen Dulles"s predilection to work with former n.a.z.is has become more obvious and more troubling as time goes by and Paperclip files are slowly decla.s.sified. The last line in Dulles"s three-page CIA biography, "Secret Security Information: Subject Allen W. Dulles 7/2-127," reads: "At any rate, the American policy in the postwar period as regards [to] Germany has been directly and deeply influenced by MR. DULLES. He has a greater trust in the Germans than he has, for instance, in the French and the Italians." 17, "High alt.i.tude reconnaissance of the Soviet Union did not fit well into Allen Dulles"s perception of the proper role of an intelligence agency. He tended to favor the cla.s.sical form of espionage, which relied on agents rather than technology." Allen Dulles"s predilection to work with former n.a.z.is has become more obvious and more troubling as time goes by and Paperclip files are slowly decla.s.sified. The last line in Dulles"s three-page CIA biography, "Secret Security Information: Subject Allen W. Dulles 7/2-127," reads: "At any rate, the American policy in the postwar period as regards [to] Germany has been directly and deeply influenced by MR. DULLES. He has a greater trust in the Germans than he has, for instance, in the French and the Italians."

7. The UFO division was placed The UFO division was placed: Office Memorandum, United States Government, To: Acting a.s.sistant Director for Scientific Intelligence, From: Todos Odarenko, Chief, Physics and Electronics Division, SI, Subject, Current Status of Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOB) Projects, 17 December 1953.

8. Walter Bedell Smith Walter Bedell Smith: Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, Legacy of Ashes, 4, 87, 122, 131. 4, 87, 122, 131.

9. included the flying disc retrieved at Roswell included the flying disc retrieved at Roswell: This is my defensible speculation based on interviews with the EG&G engineer and my understanding of Bedell Smith"s role, particularly with James Forrestal, secretary of the Navy during the war and the nation"s first secretary of defense, who committed suicide on May 22, 1949.

10. Bedell Smith was the amba.s.sador to the Soviet Union Bedell Smith was the amba.s.sador to the Soviet Union: CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, Directors and Deputy Directors of Central Intelligence, Walter Smith, General, U.S. Army.

11. Governors Island, New York Governors Island, New York: National Archives Records Administration, RG 338, Box 27, G-2 Section, Headquarters First Army, Governors Island, New York, 4, New York, Case Files.

12. summarily rejected the idea that UFOs summarily rejected the idea that UFOs: There are several CIA doc.u.ments, decla.s.sified starting in 1996, that I base my interpretation of General Bedell Smith"s att.i.tude toward UFOs on during his tenure at CIA. All quotes come from these doc.u.ments: Central Intelligence Agency, Washington 25, D.C. Office of the Director, ER-3-2809, Memorandum to Director, Psychology Strategy Board, Subject Flying Saucers, 2 pages, signed Walter B. Smith Director, undated; Memorandum for file OSI, Meeting of OSI Advisory Group on UFO, January 14 through 17, 1953, 3 pages; Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects 1417 January 1953, Evidence Presented, 2 pages; CIA Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects, Comments and Suggestions of UFO Panel, 19 pages; Minutes of Branch Chief"s Meeting of 11 August 1952, 3 pages; Memorandum for Director of Central Intelligence, From Deputy Director, Intelligence, Subject Flying Saucers, Dated September 7, 1952, 5 pages.

13. flying discs appeared in many different forms of art flying discs appeared in many different forms of art: like the boy who cried wolf like the boy who cried wolf: Memo, CIA Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified Flying Objects, Comments and Suggestions of UFO Panel, 10. "Potential related dangers. c. Subjectivity of public to ma.s.s hysteria and greater vulnerability to possible enemy psychological warfare."

15. "hysterical ma.s.s behavior" "hysterical ma.s.s behavior": Haines, "CIA"s Role," 72.

16. the publishers of the publishers of Life Life magazine magazine: H. B. Darrach and Robert Ginna, "Have We Visitors from s.p.a.ce?" Life Life magazine, April 7, 1952. magazine, April 7, 1952.

17. originally called Project Saucer originally called Project Saucer: Haines, "CIA"s Role," 6768.

18. Green Fireb.a.l.l.s Green Fireb.a.l.l.s: Project Twinkle, Final Report, November 27, 1951.

19. curious members of Congress curious members of Congress: Interview with Stanton Friedman.

20. Air Force concluded for the National Security Council Air Force concluded for the National Security Council: U.S. Air Force Air Materiel Command, "Unidentified Aerial Objects; Project SIGN."

21. UFO convention in Los Angeles UFO convention in Los Angeles: "Minutes of the Meeting of Civilian Saucer Investigations."

22. Dr. Riedel had been working on Hitler"s bacteria bomb Dr. Riedel had been working on Hitler"s bacteria bomb: Neufeld, Von Braun, Von Braun, 206. 206.

23. There were rumors of "problems There were rumors of "problems": Ibid., 21622.

24. "going to execute a planned "hoax"": CIA Office Memorandum to a.s.sistant for Operations, OSI, From Chief Contact Division, CO, Date: 9 February 1953, Subject California Committee for Saucer Investigations.

25. set off alarms in its upper echelons set off alarms in its upper echelons: Special National Intelligence Estimate 100-2-57, No. 19, "Soviet Capabilities for Deception," Submitted by the Director of Central Intelligence, 16 pages. Based on recommendations made by the Technical Capabilities Panel, chaired by Dr. Killian, the recommendation read: "We need to examine intelligence data more broadly, or to invent some new technique, for the discovery of hoaxes."

26. trailing a colleague of Riedel named George P. Sutton trailing a colleague of Riedel named George P. Sutton: Curiously, the CIA doc.u.ment referenced above names George Sutton as a Riedel colleague and ufologist. Was he a plant? Was he turned? Did he reform on his own? According to the Smithsonian Papers, National Air and s.p.a.ce Museum, Archives Division, MRC 322, Washington, DC, 20560, in the G. Paul Sutton collection: "George Paul Sutton (1920) was an aeros.p.a.ce engineer and manager. He received degrees from Los Angeles City College (AA, 1940) and the California Inst.i.tute of Technology (BS, 1942; MS [ME], 1943) before going to work as a development engineer for the Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation. He remained at Rocketdyne into the late 1960s, while also sitting as Hunsaker Professor of Aeronautical Engineering at MIT (1958-59) and serving as Chief Scientist, Advanced Research Projects Agency [ARPA] and Division Director, Inst.i.tute of Defense a.n.a.lysis for the Department of Defense (1959-60). Following his work at Rocketdyne he joined the technical staff at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory."

27. Agency should handle reports of UFOs Agency should handle reports of UFOs: Odarenko, Office Memorandum, August 8, 1955.

28. Allen Dulles as an arrogant public servant Allen Dulles as an arrogant public servant: Letter from Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles to Congressman Gordon Scherer, October 4, 1955, ER-7-4372A.

Chapter Five: The Need-to-Know.

Interviews: Colonel Slater, Hervey Stockman, Ken Collins, Frank Murray, Tony Bevacqua, Colonel Pizzo, Edward Lovick, Ray Goudey 1. protocols that are also top secret protocols that are also top secret: Correspondence with Cargill Hall. The Federation of American Scientists provides a noncla.s.sified Central Intelligence Directive from 1995 at bemoaned the president"s science advisers bemoaned the president"s science advisers: Welzenbach, "Science and Technology," 16.

3. Sage Control Sage Control: Interview with Colonel Slater.

4. "It was like something out of fiction" "It was like something out of fiction": Interview with Hervey Stockman. Also sourced in this section with Stockman are pa.s.sages from his compelling oral history, a project that was spearheaded by his son Peter Stockman and the results of which are "Conversations with Colonel Hervey S. Stockman," edited by Ann Paden and Earl Haney (not published).

5. The ident.i.ties of the pilots were equally concealed The ident.i.ties of the pilots were equally concealed: Interviews with Ken Collins, Frank Murray, Tony Bevacqua, and Hervey Stockman.

6. NII-88 NII-88: Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising, Red Moon Rising, 2223, 2630, 3944, 98, 102; Harford, 2223, 2630, 3944, 98, 102; Harford, Korolev, Korolev, 7780, 93, 95, 117. Also called Scientific Research Inst.i.tute-88, which included the former NII-1, per Stalin on May 13, 1946. 7780, 93, 95, 117. Also called Scientific Research Inst.i.tute-88, which included the former NII-1, per Stalin on May 13, 1946.

7. Stalin declared Sergei Korolev"s name a state secret Stalin declared Sergei Korolev"s name a state secret: Harford, Korolev, Korolev, 1. 1.

8. multibillion-dollar espionage platforms multibillion-dollar espionage platforms: Ibid., 93. Harford quotes Gyorgi Vetrov, Korolev"s Russian biographer, as saying about NII-88"s radical transformation: "Hardly anyone suspected that the plant was destined to become a production base for such complicated and demanding technologies as rockets and s.p.a.ce vehicles for traveling to other plants."

9. Russia"s version of America"s Paperclip scientists Russia"s version of America"s Paperclip scientists: Ibid., 75. In addition to the Army intelligence CIC memos that I cited earlier regarding Fritz Wendel, Harford wrote "perhaps as many as 5,000 skilled Germans... were literally kidnapped and shipped with their families, by trains, freight cars and trucks to workplaces outside of Moscow."

10. Operation Dragon Return Operation Dragon Return: Goodman, Spying on the Nuclear Bear, Spying on the Nuclear Bear, 177. 177.

11. "cannot cope with contingencies" "cannot cope with contingencies": Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising, Red Moon Rising, 81. 81.

12. LeMay scrambled nearly a thousand B-47 bombers LeMay scrambled nearly a thousand B-47 bombers: Ibid., 25. The entirety of these Arctic overflights is still cla.s.sified. Missions are written about in Burrows, By Any Means Necessary, By Any Means Necessary, 20815, and in Bamford, 20815, and in Bamford, Body of Secrets, Body of Secrets, 3536. The National Security Agency cosponsored many of the ELINT missions. In 3536. The National Security Agency cosponsored many of the ELINT missions. In Secret Empire, Secret Empire, Philip Taubman wrote, "At least 252 air crewmen were shot down on spy flights between 1950 and 1970, most directed against the Soviet Union. It is certain that 90 of these men survived, for they were either rescued by American forces or their capture but the Soviet Union or another country was confirmed. But the fate of 138 men is unknown," 47. Philip Taubman wrote, "At least 252 air crewmen were shot down on spy flights between 1950 and 1970, most directed against the Soviet Union. It is certain that 90 of these men survived, for they were either rescued by American forces or their capture but the Soviet Union or another country was confirmed. But the fate of 138 men is unknown," 47.

13. top secret missions as part of Operation Home Run top secret missions as part of Operation Home Run: Interview with Colonel Sam Pizzo.

14. "Soviet leaders may have become convinced": CIA Staff, "a.n.a.lysis of the Soviet Union 19471999," 27.

15. President Eisenhower was gravely concerned President Eisenhower was gravely concerned: Top Secret Memorandum of Conference with the President, July 8, 1959. With Dulles and Bissell present at the meeting, USAF Brigadier General A. J. Goodpaster observed, "There remains in the President"s mind the question of whether we were getting to the point where we must decide if we are trying to prepare to fight a war, or trying to prevent one." Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters.

16. Richard Bissell promised the president Richard Bissell promised the president: Oral history interview with Richard M. Bissell Jr. by Theodore A. Wilson and Richard D. McKinzie, East Hartford, Connecticut, July 9, 1971.

17. Alexander Orlov related Alexander Orlov related: Orlov, "The U-2 Program," 514.

18. "We will shoot down uninvited guests": Ibid., 7.

19. he would be even more enraged he would be even more enraged: Ibid.; Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising, Red Moon Rising, 12435. 12435.

20. CIA men armed with machine guns CIA men armed with machine guns: Interview with Hervey Stockman.

21. Eisenhower"s cows Eisenhower"s cows: P. Taubman, Secret Empire, Secret Empire, 167. 167.

22. Stockman approached Russia"s submarine city Stockman approached Russia"s submarine city: Stockman also recalled in our interview, "This was good solid proof that what so many had thought to be over there, that there was this huge, dominant, strategic bomber force for the Soviet Union, [proved] not to be there."

23. Herbert Miller wrote a triumphant memo Herbert Miller wrote a triumphant memo: Decla.s.sified in 2000, the memo is called Top Secret Memorandum for: Project Director, Subject: Suggestions re the Intelligence Value of Aquatone, July 17, 1956. Three more U-2 flights followed Hervey Stockman"s. On July 10, 1956, the Soviet Union filed a note of protest. Later that same day, Eisenhower ordered Bissell to stop all overflights until further notice. Miller"s memo summarizes the intelligence value of the U-2 flights for the president and argues that the danger of stopping them was far greater than of continuing them.

24. Khrushchev told his son, Sergei Khrushchev told his son, Sergei: W. Taubman, Khrushchev, Khrushchev, 443. 443.

25. "lost enthusiasm" for the CIA"s aerial espionage program "lost enthusiasm" for the CIA"s aerial espionage program: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 110. Further, the president noted that if Russia were to make these kinds of incursions over U.S. airs.p.a.ce, "The reaction would be drastic." Also from Andrew J. Goodpaster, memorandum on the record, July 19, 1956. The president expressed concern that if the public found out about the overflights, they would be shocked. "Soviet protests would be one thing, any loss of confidence by our own people would be quite another." 110. Further, the president noted that if Russia were to make these kinds of incursions over U.S. airs.p.a.ce, "The reaction would be drastic." Also from Andrew J. Goodpaster, memorandum on the record, July 19, 1956. The president expressed concern that if the public found out about the overflights, they would be shocked. "Soviet protests would be one thing, any loss of confidence by our own people would be quite another."

26. he hired a team to a.n.a.lyze he hired a team to a.n.a.lyze: Interview with Edward Lovick.

27. painting the U-2 was a bad idea painting the U-2 was a bad idea: Ibid.

28. Air Force transferred money over to the CIA Air Force transferred money over to the CIA: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 77. 77.

29. Among those selected Among those selected: Interview with Tony Bevacqua.

30. The next test was a freezing experiment The next test was a freezing experiment: Interview with Bevacqua. Cold experiments were presented in the Nuremberg doctors" trials as "The Effect of Freezing on Human Beings," the purpose of which was for n.a.z.i doctors to determine at what temperature a human subject dies from heart failure when being frozen.

31. aviation medicine school at Wright-Patterson aviation medicine school at Wright-Patterson: Hunt, Secret Agenda, Secret Agenda, 10, 16, 19, 21. Hunt wrote that during the war, Lieutenant General Donald "Putt gathered the Germans together and, without approval from higher authorities in the War Department, promised them jobs at Wright Field," sourcing her interview with Lieutenant General Putt; "Report on Events and Conditions Which Occurred During Procurement of Foreign Technical Men for Work in the U.S.A.," September 25, 1945, Department of the Air Force, History of the AAF Partic.i.p.ation in Project Paperclip, Appendix, May 1945March 1947. 10, 16, 19, 21. Hunt wrote that during the war, Lieutenant General Donald "Putt gathered the Germans together and, without approval from higher authorities in the War Department, promised them jobs at Wright Field," sourcing her interview with Lieutenant General Putt; "Report on Events and Conditions Which Occurred During Procurement of Foreign Technical Men for Work in the U.S.A.," September 25, 1945, Department of the Air Force, History of the AAF Partic.i.p.ation in Project Paperclip, Appendix, May 1945March 1947.

32. previously worked at n.a.z.i concentration camps previously worked at n.a.z.i concentration camps: Bower, Paperclip Conspiracy, Paperclip Conspiracy, 214323. Colonel Harry Armstrong, a surgeon with the U.S. Eighth Air Force, pet.i.tioned for the n.a.z.i doctors to come to America after the war and "at the end of his distinguished career, in 1976, he would boast that the thirty-four German aviation doctors he brought to America had saved "a great many millions of dollars."" Armstrong had obtained approval from Eisenhower for an operation to "exploit certain uncompleted German aviation medicine research projects." Also see Staff Memo to Members of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, "Post-World War II Recruitment of German Scientists-Project Paperclip," April 5, 1995 (as per President Clinton). The committee obliquely concludes: "Follow-up Research. The staff believes this trail should be followed with more research before conclusions can be drawn about the Paperclip scientists... It is possible that still-cla.s.sified intelligence doc.u.ments could shed further light on these connections." 214323. Colonel Harry Armstrong, a surgeon with the U.S. Eighth Air Force, pet.i.tioned for the n.a.z.i doctors to come to America after the war and "at the end of his distinguished career, in 1976, he would boast that the thirty-four German aviation doctors he brought to America had saved "a great many millions of dollars."" Armstrong had obtained approval from Eisenhower for an operation to "exploit certain uncompleted German aviation medicine research projects." Also see Staff Memo to Members of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, "Post-World War II Recruitment of German Scientists-Project Paperclip," April 5, 1995 (as per President Clinton). The committee obliquely concludes: "Follow-up Research. The staff believes this trail should be followed with more research before conclusions can be drawn about the Paperclip scientists... It is possible that still-cla.s.sified intelligence doc.u.ments could shed further light on these connections."

33. conducting barbaric experiments conducting barbaric experiments: In Linda Hunt"s Secret Agenda, Secret Agenda, chapter 5, "Experiments in Death," she chronicles several n.a.z.i scientists who became Paperclips. Siegfried Ruff and Hermann Becker-Freyseng conducted death experiments on prisoners at Dachau, placing them in a pressure chamber that simulated high alt.i.tudes of up to 39,260 feet. "The U.S. military still viewed Ruff and Becker-Freyseng as valuable a.s.sets, despite their connection to these crimes. They were even employed under Paperclip [at the AAF Aero Medical Center in Heidelberg, Germany] to continue the same type of research that had resulted in the murder of Dachau prisoners," Hunt wrote. Ruff and Becker-Freyseng never got permanent U.S. Paperclip jobs; both were eventually arrested and tried at Nuremberg. Ruff was acquitted, Becker-Freyseng was convicted and given a twenty-year prison sentence. Another notable case was that of Konrad Schaefer. In an effort to study if Luftwaffe pilots could survive on seawater, Schaefer forced prisoners to drink seawater until they went mad from thirst. He then punctured their livers in order to sample fluid and blood. Schaefer was tried at Nuremberg and acquitted, at which point the United States hired him as a Paperclip. "When he arrived at San Antonio in 1950," wrote Hunt, "he was touted as "the leading German authority on thirst and desalinization of seawater."" chapter 5, "Experiments in Death," she chronicles several n.a.z.i scientists who became Paperclips. Siegfried Ruff and Hermann Becker-Freyseng conducted death experiments on prisoners at Dachau, placing them in a pressure chamber that simulated high alt.i.tudes of up to 39,260 feet. "The U.S. military still viewed Ruff and Becker-Freyseng as valuable a.s.sets, despite their connection to these crimes. They were even employed under Paperclip [at the AAF Aero Medical Center in Heidelberg, Germany] to continue the same type of research that had resulted in the murder of Dachau prisoners," Hunt wrote. Ruff and Becker-Freyseng never got permanent U.S. Paperclip jobs; both were eventually arrested and tried at Nuremberg. Ruff was acquitted, Becker-Freyseng was convicted and given a twenty-year prison sentence. Another notable case was that of Konrad Schaefer. In an effort to study if Luftwaffe pilots could survive on seawater, Schaefer forced prisoners to drink seawater until they went mad from thirst. He then punctured their livers in order to sample fluid and blood. Schaefer was tried at Nuremberg and acquitted, at which point the United States hired him as a Paperclip. "When he arrived at San Antonio in 1950," wrote Hunt, "he was touted as "the leading German authority on thirst and desalinization of seawater.""

34. six hundred million still-cla.s.sified six hundred million still-cla.s.sified: Pauline Jelinek, "U.S. Releases n.a.z.i Papers," a.s.sociated Press, November 2, 1999. But in reality, this number is just a guess, since doc.u.ments can be hidden inside agencies that are still cla.s.sified (as the National Reconnaissance Office, NRO, was from 19611992); n.a.z.i War Crimes and j.a.panese Imperial Government Records, n.a.z.i War Crimes and j.a.panese Imperial Government Records, April 2007. In 1998, President Clinton signed into law the n.a.z.i War Crimes Disclosure Act, which "required the U.S. Government to locate, decla.s.sify, and release in their entirety, with few exceptions, remaining cla.s.sified records about war crimes committed by n.a.z.i Germany and its allies." An interagency working group was created to oversee this work. Steven Garfinkel, acting chair of this five-year effort, wrote: "the IWG has ensured that the public finally has access to the entirety of the operational files of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), totaling 1.2 million pages; over 114,200 pages of CIA materials; over 435,000 pages from FBI files; 20,000 pages from Army Counterintelligence Corps files; and over 7 million additional pages of records." Garfinkel makes no mention of any Atomic Energy Commission files or the files of private contractors inside the Atomic Energy Commission, such as EG&G, who control doc.u.ments cla.s.sified as Restricted Data (RD). April 2007. In 1998, President Clinton signed into law the n.a.z.i War Crimes Disclosure Act, which "required the U.S. Government to locate, decla.s.sify, and release in their entirety, with few exceptions, remaining cla.s.sified records about war crimes committed by n.a.z.i Germany and its allies." An interagency working group was created to oversee this work. Steven Garfinkel, acting chair of this five-year effort, wrote: "the IWG has ensured that the public finally has access to the entirety of the operational files of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), totaling 1.2 million pages; over 114,200 pages of CIA materials; over 435,000 pages from FBI files; 20,000 pages from Army Counterintelligence Corps files; and over 7 million additional pages of records." Garfinkel makes no mention of any Atomic Energy Commission files or the files of private contractors inside the Atomic Energy Commission, such as EG&G, who control doc.u.ments cla.s.sified as Restricted Data (RD).

35. U-2 was as radical and as unorthodox U-2 was as radical and as unorthodox: Interview with Tony Bevacqua.

36. Edgerton"s famous stop-motion photographs Edgerton"s famous stop-motion photographs: Available for viewing at the Edgerton Center at MIT, 77 Ma.s.sachusetts Avenue, Room 4-405, in Cambridge, Ma.s.sachusetts, as well as online at Edgerton.org; Grundberg, "H.E. Edgerton, 86, Dies, Invented Electronic Flash," New York Times, New York Times, January 5, 1990. January 5, 1990.

37. Kenneth J. Germeshausen Kenneth J. Germeshausen: Joan Cook, "Kenneth Germeshausen, 83, Dies; Was Nuclear and Radar Pioneer," New York Times, New York Times, August 21, 1990. Information on Germeshausen also comes from the Kenneth J. Germeshausen Center for the Law of Innovation and Entrepreneurship at the Franklin Pierce Law Center; MIT archives; author interviews with Al O"Donnell, Jim Freedman. August 21, 1990. Information on Germeshausen also comes from the Kenneth J. Germeshausen Center for the Law of Innovation and Entrepreneurship at the Franklin Pierce Law Center; MIT archives; author interviews with Al O"Donnell, Jim Freedman.

38. the most highly cla.s.sified engineering jobs the most highly cla.s.sified engineering jobs: Interviews with former EG&G employees Al O"Donnell, Jim Freedman, Wayne Pendleton, T. D. Barnes, and others.

39. EG&G agreed to set up a radar range EG&G agreed to set up a radar range: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 130. It is also interesting to note that in the footnotes in this CIA monograph, the source for information regarding the location of EG&G"s radar range is redacted, only that they are from Office of Special Activity (OSA) records. Written requests to the CIA were denied. 130. It is also interesting to note that in the footnotes in this CIA monograph, the source for information regarding the location of EG&G"s radar range is redacted, only that they are from Office of Special Activity (OSA) records. Written requests to the CIA were denied.

40. Lockheed test pilot Robert Sieker Lockheed test pilot Robert Sieker: Among pilots living at Area 51, a debate ensued about the cause of Sieker"s crash. U-2 pilots Tony Bevacqua and Ray Goudey told me they believe pilot error caused Sieker"s crash. According to them, he was known to open up his faceplate and take bites of candy bars during flight. Bevacqua himself flew a U-2 dirty bird and lived to tell the tale. Many of these mission flights were made over Asia. Lovick maintains it was the Boston Group"s paint that caused the aircraft to overheat.

41. "As it beeped in the sky": Killian, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, 7. 7.

42. Killian and Bissell found themselves Killian and Bissell found themselves: Welzenbach, "Science and Technology," 18. "Killian had confidence in Bissell. A special relationship existed between Killian and Bissell going back to 1942."

43. formidable top secret billion-dollar spy plane formidable top secret billion-dollar spy plane: Top Secret Memorandum of Conference with the President, July 20, 1959. "It will have a radar cross section so low that the probability of hostile detection and successful tracking would be very low. It would have a 4000-mile range at mach 4, with 90,000 feet alt.i.tude." Office of the Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alphabetical Subseries, Box 15, Intelligence Matters.

44. Advancing science and technology for military purposes Advancing science and technology for military purposes: The Advanced Research Projects Agency was Eisenhower"s response to Sputnik, "a high-level defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories." In 1972, ARPA became DARPA. The D D denotes denotes Defense. Defense.

Chapter Six: Atomic Accidents.

Interviews with Richard Mingus, Al O"Donnell, Jim Freedman, Dr. Wheelon, Troy Wade, Darwin Morgan, Stephen M. Younger 1. involved thirty consecutive nuclear explosions involved thirty consecutive nuclear explosions: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, fact sheet, Operation Plumbbob: "Operation Plumbbob, the sixth series of atmospheric nuclear tests conducted within the continental United States, consisted of 24 nuclear detonations and six safety tests. The Plumbbob series lasted from April 24 to Oct. 7, 1957, and involved about 14,000 Department of Defense (DoD) personnel."

2. airplane transporting an atomic bomb would crash airplane transporting an atomic bomb would crash: Atomic Energy Commission, Summary of Project 57, the First Safety Test of Operation Plumbbob, report to the General Manager by the Director, Division of Military Application, 24.

3. the perfect place to do this was Area 51 the perfect place to do this was Area 51: Ref. Sym 5112-(127), Appendix A, Administrative Committee Report, J. D. Shreve Jr., Sandia Corporation (seven pages, no date). "B. Area Chosen (clockwise perimeter) (Groom Mine Map) Start at intersection of 89 with north NTS boundary; follow 89 north to 51 (off map); 90 east on 51 to 04, south on 04 to Watertown (north) boundary, thence west to 95, south to NTS line, and finally west along NTS line to 89. More simply, it is the rectangle of land (1) bounded north and south by grids 51 and an extension of the north NTS edge respectively, (2) bounded east and west by grids 04 and 89 respectively, (3) excluding all area a.s.signed to Watertown," 5.