CIA, Richard Bissell, Area 51, Bay of Pigs.

Interviews: Written correspondence, fall 2009 Colonel Richard S. Leghorn (1919 ). The father of peacetime overhead espionage. (1919 ). The father of peacetime overhead espionage.

Army Air Forces, USAF, CIA, World War II, Korean War; U-2, MiG, Corona satellite system, reconnaissance over Normandy, overhead espionage, Operation Crossroads, General Curtis LeMay.

Interviews: July 21, 2009; July 24, 2009; February 10, 2010; written correspondence: July 2009October 2010 Edward Lovick Jr. (1919). The father of stealth technology. (1919). The father of stealth technology.

Lockheed Skunk Works, U-2, A-12 Oxcart, SR-71 Blackbird, D-21 drone, Harvey, Have Blue, F-117 Nighthawk, Project Kempster-Lacroix, radar testing, and pole testing at Area 51.

Interviews: January 5, 2008; February 7, 2008; March 6, 2008; April 3, 2008; April 18, 2008; April 29, 2008; May 29, 2008; June 6, 2008; June 18, 2008; July 2, 2008; July 10, 2008; July 23, 2008; July 30, 2008; August 6, 2008; August 13, 2008; August 21, 2008; August 28, 2008; September 4, 2008; November 18, 2008; December 9, 2008; January 6, 2009; January 20, 2009; March 17, 2009; March 30, 2009; June 11, 2009; June 28, 2009; August 1, 2009; February 28, 2010; April 22, 2010; September 5, 2010; written correspondence: February 2008October 2010 Ray Goudey (1919 ). Flew U-2 "Ship One" at Area 51. (1919 ). Flew U-2 "Ship One" at Area 51.

Lockheed test flights, U-2, Burbank to Area 51 flights.

Interviews: June 12, 2009; July 8, 2009; October 8, 2009 Fred White (1921 ). Wrote the flight manuals for Lockheed U-2, A-12, and SR-71. (1921 ). Wrote the flight manuals for Lockheed U-2, A-12, and SR-71.

Lockheed Skunk Works, U-2, A-12, YF-12, SR-71, engineering projects at Area 51.

Interviews: October 3, 2009; October 8, 2009; written correspondence: October 2009May 2010.

Colonel Hugh "Slip" Slater (1922 ). Base commander at Area 51. (1922 ). Base commander at Area 51.

Army Air Force, USAF, CIA, A-12, YF-12, D-21 drone, commander of the U-2 Chinese Black Cat Squadron, commander for Operation Black Shield, the 303 Committee.

Interviews: November 13, 2008; December 20, 2009; January 7, 2009; March 4, 2009; April 25, 2009; June 25, 2009; July 14, 2009; October 7, 2009; October 8, 2009; January 13, 2010 Alfred O"Donnell (1922 ), early Manhattan Project member. Armed, wired, and fired 186 nuclear bombs at the Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Ground. (1922 ), early Manhattan Project member. Armed, wired, and fired 186 nuclear bombs at the Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Ground.

Nuclear weapons, World War II, Battle at Okinawa; timing, wiring, and firing system on atomic bombs; timing, wiring, and firing system on thermonuclear bombs; Operation Crossroads, Operation Greenhouse, Operation Ivy, Operation Castle, Operation Plumbbob, Operation Hardtack, Nevada Test Site.

Interviews: May 9, 2009; May 25, 2009; May 27, 2009; June 24, 2009; June 25, 2009; July 15, 2009; September 7, 2009; September 8, 2009; October 6, 2009; October 7, 2009; November 17, 2009; December 14, 2009; December 15, 2009; December 16, 2009; January 13, 2010; January 14, 2010; February 11, 2010; March 6, 2010; June 28, 2010, June 29, 2010; written correspondence: May 2009October 2010 Colonel Hervey S. Stockman (19222011). First man to fly over the Soviet Union in a U-2. (19222011). First man to fly over the Soviet Union in a U-2.

Army Air Forces, USAF, U-2 pilot, atomic-sampling pilot, fighter pilot in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam; POW at the Hanoi Hilton and other prisons from June 12, 1967March 4, 1973.

Interviews: August 24, 2009; September 17, 2009; March 24, 2010 Colonel Sam Pizzo (1922 ). Navigation expert for the A-12 at Area 51 and escort to Nikita Khrushchev from Moscow to America in 1959. (1922 ). Navigation expert for the A-12 at Area 51 and escort to Nikita Khrushchev from Moscow to America in 1959.

Strategic Air Command, USAF, A-12 Oxcart, Operation Home Run, celestial navigation, General Curtis LeMay.

Interviews: April 22, 2009; April 24, 2009; May 19, 2009; May 21, 2009; October 3, 2009; October 7, 2009; December 2, 2009; written correspondence: April 2009September 2010 General Hsichun "Mike" Hua (1926 ). Flew with U-2 Chinese Black Cat Squadron. (1926 ). Flew with U-2 Chinese Black Cat Squadron.

CIA U-2 pilot, CIA air base at Taoyuan, Taiwan.

Interview: March 12, 2010; written correspondence: winter/spring 2010 Ralph James "Jim" Freedman (1927 ). Procurement manager at Area 51, EG&G weapons test engineer, and nuclear explosion photographer. (1927 ). Procurement manager at Area 51, EG&G weapons test engineer, and nuclear explosion photographer.

EG&G, CIA, nuclear test liaison to Howard Hughes from Area 51, Nevada Test Site, Operation Greenhouse, Operation Ivy, Operation Castle, A-12 Oxcart, Project Aquiline.

Interviews: May 7, 2009; May 8, 2009; April 25, 2009; June 24, 2009; September 8, 2009; October 8, 2009; December 15, 2009; June 28, 2010; August 4, 2010; November 30, 2010.

Brigadier General Raymond L. Haupt (1927 ). The only man to fly all three models of the Oxcart at Area 51. (1927 ). The only man to fly all three models of the Oxcart at Area 51.

USAF, U-2, A-12 Oxcart, YF-12, SR-71 Blackbird, Blackbird flight manuals, Lockheed pilots, Area 51 operations.

Interviews: October 3, 2009; October 8, 2009 Major General Patrick J. Halloran (1928 ). Squadron operations officer for the U-2, wing commander for the SR-71 Blackbird. (1928 ). Squadron operations officer for the U-2, wing commander for the SR-71 Blackbird.

USAF, U-2, SR-71 Blackbird, U-2 shoot-downs over China.

Interview: June 12, 2009 Dr. Albert D. "Bud" Wheelon (1929 ). CIA"s first deputy director of Science and Technology, also known as the mayor of Area 51. (1929 ). CIA"s first deputy director of Science and Technology, also known as the mayor of Area 51.

Project Palladium, A-12 Oxcart, Cuban missile crisis, satellites, early missile systems, TRW, defense contracting, MIT, President Kennedy, James Killian, General Ledford, John McCone, Richard Helms, Lyman Kirkpatrick.

Interviews: May 29, 2009; November 9, 2009 Colonel Kenneth B. Collins (1930 ). A-12 Oxcart pilot for the CIA. (1930 ). A-12 Oxcart pilot for the CIA.

USAF, CIA, A-12 Oxcart pilot, SR-71 Blackbird pilot, Korean War, Vietnam War, Operation Black Shield, Jack Weeks, Walt Ray.

Interviews: October 29, 2008; January 20, 2009; March 17, 2009; April 14, 2009; April 28, 2009; May 19, 2009; June 1, 2009; June 13, 2009; August 4, 2009; October 20, 2009; December 2, 2009; January 20, 2010, April 4, 2010, August 6, 2010; written correspondence: October 2008October 2010 Lieutenant Colonel Francis J. "Frank" Murray (1930 ). A-12 Oxcart pilot for the CIA. (1930 ). A-12 Oxcart pilot for the CIA.

USAF, CIA, A-12 Oxcart pilot, F-101 pilot, Vietnam War, Operation Black Shield, USS Pueblo, Pueblo, General Ledford, Walt Ray. General Ledford, Walt Ray.

Interviews: March 4, 2009; March 5, 2009; April 28, 2009; October 6, 2009; October 7, 2009; January 6, 2010; January 13, 2010; written correspondence: March 2009May 2010 Lieutenant Colonel Roger W. Andersen (1930 ). Area 51 command post operations for Area 51 and Kadena Air Base during Operation Oxcart. (1930 ). Area 51 command post operations for Area 51 and Kadena Air Base during Operation Oxcart.

USAF, CIA, Nevada Test Site, atomic tests, Operation Black Shield.

Interviews: March 5, 2009; May 26, 2009; October 7, 2009; September 24, 2010; written correspondence: May 2009September 2010 Robert "Bob" Murphy (1930 ). Lockheed Skunk Works engineer and project airplane manager at Area 51. (1930 ). Lockheed Skunk Works engineer and project airplane manager at Area 51.

U-2, A-12 Oxcart, D-21 drone, U-2 missions out of Asia, Have Blue, F-117 Nighthawk.

Interviews: July 4, 2009; July 20, 2009; September 24, 2010 William "Bill" Weaver (1930 ). Lockheed test pilot for the A-12, YF-12, SR-71, and the only pilot to survive a Mach 3 bailout at 78,000 feet in an SR-71 Blackbird. (1930 ). Lockheed test pilot for the A-12, YF-12, SR-71, and the only pilot to survive a Mach 3 bailout at 78,000 feet in an SR-71 Blackbird.

SR-71 Blackbird, high-speed bailouts, parachutes.

Interview: June 13, 2009 Captain Donald J. Donohue (1930 ). Crew captain for A-12 Oxcart at Area 51. (1930 ). Crew captain for A-12 Oxcart at Area 51.

USAF, A-12 Oxcart.

Interviews: May 8, 2009; December 9, 2009 Frank Micalizzi (1930 ). Warehouse supervisor at Area 51. (1930 ). Warehouse supervisor at Area 51.

USAF, CIA, Kadena Air Force Base, A-12 Oxcart camera film storage.

Interview: May 8, 2009 Florence DeLuna (1930 ). Area 51 transport pilot. (1930 ). Area 51 transport pilot.

USAF, C-47, Walt Ray, Dreamland airs.p.a.ce and air traffic control.

Interview: May 8, 2009 Ernest "Ernie" Williams (1930 ). Atomic Energy Commission motor pool and food services coordinator, escorted the Apollo astronauts around the Nevada Test Site. (1930 ). Atomic Energy Commission motor pool and food services coordinator, escorted the Apollo astronauts around the Nevada Test Site.

AEC, Nevada Test Site, astronaut training.

Interviews: October 7, 2009; December 14, 2009 S. Eugene "Gene" Poteat (1930 ). Pioneer of electronic countermeasures, first CIA officer a.s.signed to the National Reconnaissance Office. (1930 ). Pioneer of electronic countermeasures, first CIA officer a.s.signed to the National Reconnaissance Office.

CIA, NRO, Project Palladium, Area 51 radar tests, U-2 and A-12, Caspian Sea Monster, Project Aquiline.

Interviews: September 27, 2010; September 28, 2010; September 30, 2010 Richard Mingus (1931 ). Area 51 security, Nevada Test Site Security, and Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operations manager. (1931 ). Area 51 security, Nevada Test Site Security, and Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operations manager.

Atomic Energy Commission, Department of Energy, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Federal Services, Inc., Wackenhut Security, Inc., U-2 security guard, Area 51 security, Area 52 security, Nevada Test Site, Tonopah Test Range, Project 57, Operation Plumbbob, underground nuclear testing.

Interviews: September 9, 2009; October 8, 2009; November 18, 2009; December 14, 2009; December 15, 2009; December 16, 2009; January 14, 2009; February 10, 2010; February 12, 2010; June 28, 2010; June 29, 2010 Harry Martin (1931 ). In charge of the million-gallon fuel farm at Area 51. (1931 ). In charge of the million-gallon fuel farm at Area 51.

USAF, CIA, fuels, A-12 Oxcart.

Interviews: November 13, 2008; March 5, 2009; May 26, 2009 Lieutenant Colonel Tony Bevacqua (1932 ). Youngest pilot to fly U-2 at Area 51. (1932 ). Youngest pilot to fly U-2 at Area 51.

USAF, U-2 pilot, SR-71 Blackbird pilot, Vietnam War, Kadena Air Force Base, Gary Powers.

Interviews: June 12, 2009; June 13, 2009; October 8, 2009; written correspondence: June 2009October 2010 Colonel Charles E. "Charlie" Trapp (1933 ). Area 51 helicopter search-and-rescue pilot. (1933 ). Area 51 helicopter search-and-rescue pilot.

USAF, C-47, Walt Ray, Dreamland airs.p.a.ce and air traffic control.

Interview: June 4, 2010; November 18, 2010; November 24, 2010 November 18, 2010; November 24, 2010 Troy Wade (1934 ). Longtime Nevada Test Site official, former a.s.sistant secretary of energy for defense programs, ran Operation Morning Light for the Department of Energy, Nevada Test Site Historical Foundation. (1934 ). Longtime Nevada Test Site official, former a.s.sistant secretary of energy for defense programs, ran Operation Morning Light for the Department of Energy, Nevada Test Site Historical Foundation.

Atomic Energy Commission, Department of Energy, Nevada Test Site, Operation Morning Light, underground nuclear testing.

Interviews: September 9, 2009; October 8, 2009; December 15, 2009 Wayne E. Pendleton (1935 ). EG&G radar expert. (1935 ). EG&G radar expert.

Lockheed Skunk Works, EG&G radar range, National Reconnaissance Office, Have Blue, Howard Hughes.

Interviews: October 3, 2009; October 7, 2009; April 22, 2010 Thornton "T.D." Barnes (1937 ). Radar expert on multiple Area 51 projects. (1937 ). Radar expert on multiple Area 51 projects.

CIA, EG&G, Atomic Energy Commission, NASA, Project Palladium, A-12 Oxcart, MiG, X-15 rocket plane, Apollo 1, NERVA, Nike missile system, Hercules missile system, Have Blue.

Interviews: November 3, 2008; November 13, 2008; December 20, 2009; December 21, 2009; January 7, 2009; March 4, 2009; March 5, 2009; March 6, 2009; April 24, 2009; April 25, 2009; May 7, 2009; May 8, 2009; May 26, 2009; June 12, 2009; June 13, 2009; June 24, 2009; June 25, 2009; July 14, 2009; September 7, 2009; September 9, 2009, October 7, 2009; October 8, 2009; October 9, 2009, December 14, 2009; December 15, 2009; December 16, 2009; January 13, 2010; January 14, 2010; February 11, 2010; February 12, 2010; March 6, 2010; June 29, 2010; written correspondence: November 2008October 2010 Ken Swanson (1937 ). Electronic warfare, electronic countermeasures expert, Red Dog/Blue Dog ECM System. (1937 ). Electronic warfare, electronic countermeasures expert, Red Dog/Blue Dog ECM System.

Interview: June 17, 2010 Sherre Lovick (1960 ). Lockheed Skunk Works engineer. (1960 ). Lockheed Skunk Works engineer.

Lockheed Skunk Works, radar signature, defense contracting.

Interviews: February 7, 2008; March 6, 2008; April 3, 2008; April 29, 2008; May 29, 2008; June 6, 2008; July 2, 2008; July 23, 2008; July 30, 2008; August 6, 2008; August 21, 2008; June 28, 2009 Colonel Buzz Aldrin, Apollo 11 astronaut and the second man on the moon Apollo 11 astronaut and the second man on the moon Dr. Robert B. Abernethy, Pratt and Whitney engineer; invented the Oxcart"s J-58 engine Pratt and Whitney engineer; invented the Oxcart"s J-58 engine Joseph C. Behne Jr.: Former test director, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Former test director, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Arthur Beidler, 67th Reconnaissance Tactical Squadron, j.a.pan 67th Reconnaissance Tactical Squadron, j.a.pan Colonel Adelbert W. "Buz" Carpenter, SR-71 pilot SR-71 pilot Harold B. Finger, former manager of AEC-NASA s.p.a.ce Nuclear Propulsion Office former manager of AEC-NASA s.p.a.ce Nuclear Propulsion Office R. Cargill Hall, historian emeritus, National Reconnaissance Office historian emeritus, National Reconnaissance Office Milton M. Klein, former manager of AEC-NASA s.p.a.ce Nuclear Propulsion Office former manager of AEC-NASA s.p.a.ce Nuclear Propulsion Office Darwin Morgan: National Nuclear Security Administration, spokesman (current) National Nuclear Security Administration, spokesman (current) Dennis Nordquist, Pratt and Whitney mechanical engineer, J-58 engine Pratt and Whitney mechanical engineer, J-58 engine Grace Weismann: Joe Walker"s widow Joe Walker"s widow Charles "Chuck" Wilson: U-2 pilot U-2 pilot Changti "Robin" Yeh: U-2 pilot, Chinese Black Cat Squadron U-2 pilot, Chinese Black Cat Squadron Secondary Interviews and Correspondence Steven Aftergood Joerg Arnu Doris Barnes Stacy Slater Bernhardt Tim Brown Fred Burton Lee Davidson Martha DeMarre Jeanne Donohue Stanton Friedman Norio Hayakawa Bill Irvine George Knapp Tony Landis Eunice Layton Colonel Ronald "Jack" Layton Bob Lazar Ken Leghorn Jim Long Dr. Craig Luther Tom Mahood Mary Martin Millie Meierdierck Peter W. Merlin Martha Murphy Mary Jane Murphy Stella Murray David Myhra James Oberg Ruth O"Donnell Thomas O"Donnell Major General Jude Pao John E. Pike Gerald Posner Gary Powers Jr.

Dr. Jeffrey Richelson Dr. David Robarge Louise Schalk P. W. Singer Barbara Slater Peter Slater Peter Stockman Sharlene Weeks Stephen M. Younger G. Pascal Zachary Current and former employees from the following organizations, agencies, and corporations were interviewed, some on the condition of anonymity.

National Security Agency (NSA) National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) National Aeronautics and s.p.a.ce Agency (NASA) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Department of Energy (DOE) Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) United States Air Force (USAF) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) EG&G Special Projects Group Lockheed Martin Corporation Northrop Grumman Raytheon General Atomics Aeronautical Hughes Aircraft Company Summa Corporation

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Anders, Roger M., Jack M. Holl, Alice L. Buck, and Prentice C. Dean. The United States Nuclear Weapons Program: A Summary History. The United States Nuclear Weapons Program: A Summary History. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 1983. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 1983.

Ball, Desmond. Politics and Force Levels, the Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration. Politics and Force Levels, the Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.

Bamford, James. Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency. Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency. New York: Anchor Books, 2002. New York: Anchor Books, 2002.

Berlitz, Charles, and William Moore. Roswell Incident, the Most Important UFO Encounter of Our Century. Roswell Incident, the Most Important UFO Encounter of Our Century. New York: MJF Books, 1980. New York: MJF Books, 1980.

Bissell, Richard M., with Jonathan E. Lewis and Francis T. Pudlo. Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs. Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Bower, Tom. The Paperclip Conspiracy: The Hunt for the n.a.z.i Scientists. The Paperclip Conspiracy: The Hunt for the n.a.z.i Scientists. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1987. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1987.

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Broad, William J. Teller"s War: The Top Secret Story Behind the Star Wars Deception. Teller"s War: The Top Secret Story Behind the Star Wars Deception. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992.

Brugioni, Dino A. Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis. New York: Random House, 1990. New York: Random House, 1990.

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Coolidge, Matthew. The Nevada Test Site: A Guide to America"s Nuclear Proving Ground. The Nevada Test Site: A Guide to America"s Nuclear Proving Ground. Culver City, Calif.: The Center for Land Use Interpretation, 1996. Culver City, Calif.: The Center for Land Use Interpretation, 1996.

Cornwall, John. Hitler"s Scientists: Science, War and the Devil"s Pact. Hitler"s Scientists: Science, War and the Devil"s Pact. New York: Penguin Group, 2003. New York: Penguin Group, 2003.

Crickmore, Paul F. Combat Legend: F-117 Nighthawk. Combat Legend: F-117 Nighthawk. Shrewsbury, England: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2003. Shrewsbury, England: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2003.

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d.i.c.kson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. New York: Walker and Company, 2007. New York: Walker and Company, 2007.

Dolibois, John E. Pattern of Circles, an Amba.s.sador"s Story. Pattern of Circles, an Amba.s.sador"s Story. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989.

Fehner, Terrence R., and F. G. Gosling. Battlefield of the Cold War: Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Testing 19511963. Battlefield of the Cold War: Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Testing 19511963. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2006.

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Finger, H. B., and W. H. Robbins. An Historical Perspective of the NERVA Nuclear Rocket Engine Technology Program. An Historical Perspective of the NERVA Nuclear Rocket Engine Technology Program. Cleveland, Ohio: NASA Lewis Research Center Group, 1991. Cleveland, Ohio: NASA Lewis Research Center Group, 1991.

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Goode, Timothy. Above Top Secret: The Worldwide UFO Coverup. Above Top Secret: The Worldwide UFO Coverup. New York: William Morrow, 1988. New York: William Morrow, 1988.

Goodman, Matthew. The Sun and the Moon: The Remarkable True Account of Hoaxers, Showmen, Dueling Journalists, and Lunar Man-Bats in Nineteenth-Century New York. The Sun and the Moon: The Remarkable True Account of Hoaxers, Showmen, Dueling Journalists, and Lunar Man-Bats in Nineteenth-Century New York. New York: Basic Books, 2008. New York: Basic Books, 2008.