Let me suggest a minimum of detail within these outlines.
The apprentice teacher would, naturally, do the least cla.s.sroom teaching during his first year, and the most during his last. He would also each year "advise" a group of freshman in studies and in life, or cooperate with students in the conduct of athletics, dramatics, publication work, or other "activities." On all this apprentice work he would report, and in all he would be guided and supervised appropriately by the department whose subject he was teaching, by the department of education, and by other departments concerned. This and other parts of the training would attract others in addition to narrowly bookish graduates, something much to be desired (other parts would eliminate those not bookish enough), and would tend to keep alive in all apprentices an interest in students, especially in student character, and to prevent them from thinking of students as disembodied minds.
The course of study and investigation in the subject to be taught should be based on adequate undergraduate work in the same and allied fields, and should be something like the honor course in Oxford or Cambridge (or our _old_ M.A. course) in its conduct and purpose; it should hark back to our collegiate origin in England. The work should be in charge of a don, a widely and wisely read and a very human guide, philosopher, and friend. Stated cla.s.s meetings and precise count of hours of attendance should receive little emphasis. But wide reading of the subject, in a spirit that breeds contagion, running off into a study, in books, laboratories, and meetings, of the human and practical bearings of the subject, should be required, and enough conference with the don should be had to enable him to judge and criticize the student"s plan and amount of work, to test his mettle in handling the subject, and to aid him to grasp it as a whole and in its chief subdivisions, and to get glimpses of its bearings on and place in human life. This part of the training should lead up to and culminate in a thesis dealing with some major phase of the subject comprehendingly in its setting and connections. Naturally this program could be carried out most successfully with the social subjects, which lend themselves easily to culture, like history or philosophy, and less completely with the exact subjects, which are better fitted for precise discipline, like mathematics. But if treated, as far as possible, after the manner indicated, even the latter could be made better instruments for the training of college teachers than they are now in narrow specialization for the Ph.D. degree. Among returning Rhodes scholars some excellent material for dons could be found.
The fifth of the course directed to pedagogy should include a very brief study of the methods of teaching the chosen subject, with glimpses into teaching methods in general; and courses in the history and philosophy of education, with emphasis on, but by no means exclusive dealing with, the educational and social functions of the college. It might include an intensive investigation of some relatively simple college problem in preparation for future faculty membership. All this should, of course, be intimately articulated with the student"s apprenticeship work. Such a course of pedagogical study should furnish a basis for better teaching methods and for helpful self-criticism therein; should encourage the formation of a habit of thinking and working out educational problems scientifically with eyes open to the purpose of the college as a whole; and should discourage departmental selfishness in legislation and administration.
=Incidental advantage=
The college would, under this plan, have some of its teaching done at minimum cost by student teachers, who should receive only the graduate scholarship or fellowship now customary for Ph. D. candidates. Care would be necessary to prevent the a.s.signment to them of mere routine hackwork without training value. It is safe to say that, though slightly less mature, their services, being supervised, would be more valuable than those rendered during their first few years of teaching by most better-paid winners of the doctorate of philosophy, who, if they do so at all, grope their way to usefulness as teachers, with little aid from others more experienced.
With good teaching prepared for, required, and adequately rewarded (a point to be developed later), somewhat longer schedules could properly be a.s.signed and further economy effected. Schedules would, of course, have to be kept short enough to allow ample time for reading, for some writing, and for faculty and committee work in later years. But time would not be required by _college_ teachers for specialized research, and the freedom from such tasks resulting for them would be a blessed relief to many who are now compelled to a.s.sume a virtue they have not, and to conceal the love of teaching they have. And when we bear in mind the heavy ma.s.s of uninspired and unimportant hackwork that is now dumped on the scholarly world, we shall welcome the prospect of a lightened burden for ourselves.
The need of students, especially of freshmen, for advisers is widely recognized. They come into a new freedom exercised in a new environment. This makes for bewilderment that involves loss of precious time and opportunities, and presents perils which involve possible injuries to many and certain injuries to some. Efforts, many and various, to const.i.tute a body of advisers chosen from among faculty members have met with but little success. With few exceptions the task is not congenial to those who now man our faculties, and for that and other reasons they are ill fitted for it. But a greater measure of success has been attained, even under present conditions, when the cooperation of volunteers from among seniors and graduate students has been had. This suggests that the problem might come nearer solution when some dependence came to be placed upon the services of apprentices. Such service would be a part of their regular work having a bearing on their future career, and would therefore be supervised and rest on sustained interest and the consciousness that it was counting.
Finally, young student teachers would, under proper encouragement and arrangement, help materially to bridge the gulf, that is broader than is wholesome, between a faculty of mature men and young students. The mixing of these different generations, so far as possible, is much to be desired, difficult as it is to accomplish.
=Consequent change of plan in appointments and promotions=
This is not the place to discuss the details of appointment and promotion plans, interesting and important as they are. But it is evident that the scheme of training outlined, if adopted, would call for changes in present practices.
The appointing authorities of colleges looking for young teachers could ascertain their strong and weak points as they developed during their apprenticeship in cla.s.srooms and in other educational activities, as well as the quality and trend of their scholarship.
They would not rest satisfied with ascertaining the minute corner of the field of philosophy, history, or physics in which a man recommended had done research. Records could be kept throwing much-needed light on the teaching ability, scholarship, and personality of candidates for appointment. In selecting _college_ teachers, appointing authorities would value this evidence and would come to prefer teaching power to investigating ability.
Moreover, the record keeping, and, no doubt, some of the supervision begun during the apprentice years would continue during the early instructorial years. This would render it possible to evaluate and to value effectiveness in teaching in making promotions. Ambitious teachers would no longer be practically forced, as their only resort, to neglect their students and give their best energies to publication in order to make a name and get a call, in the interest of promotion.
The expert teacher would have a chance and a dignity equal to that of the skilled investigator. The individual could follow, and not be penalized for so doing, his own bent and the line of his highest capacity.
=Training of investigators=
The training now given in graduate schools here and elsewhere for the doctorate in philosophy will, of course, continue, and increase rather than diminish. Investigators will be preferred in research, in universities, and in some colleges and college departments. They will be increasingly prized in the government service and in important branches of industry. The recent terrible experiences burn into our minds the imperative need strong nations have of exact knowledge and of skill that has a scientific edge. And the specific training for these great tasks will be stronger when it is based on a college course in which highly effective and whole-hearted teaching is valued and rewarded.
SIDNEY E. MEZES _College of the City of New York_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANONYMOUS. Confessions of One Behind the Times. _Atlantic_, Vol. 3, pages 353-356, March, 1913.
CANBY, H. S. The Professor. _Harpers_, April, 1913.
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bulletin No. 2, May, 1908, pages 55-57.
FLEXNER, ABRAHAM. Adjusting the College to American Life. _Science_, Vol. 29, pages 361-372.
HANDSCHIN, C. H. Inbreeding in the Instructional Corps of American Colleges and Universities. _Science_, Vol. 32, pages 707-709.
November, 1910.
HOLLIDAY, CARL. Our "Doctored" Colleges. _School and Society_, Vol. 2, pages 782-784. November 27, 1915.
HORNE, HERMAN H. The Study of Education by Prospective College Instructors. _School Review_, Vol. 16, March, 1908, pages 162-170.
PITKIN, W. B. Training College Teachers. _Popular Science_, Vol. 74, pages 588-595. June, 1909.
Report of the Committee on Standards of American Universities.
_Science_, Vol. 29, page 172. November 17, 1908.
ROBINSON, MABEL L. Need of Supervision in College Teaching. _School and Society_, Vol. 2, pages 514-519, October 9, 1915.
SANDERSON, E. D. Definiteness of Appointment and Tenure. _Science_, Vol. 39, pages 890-896, June, 1914.
STEWART, Charles A. Appointment and Promotion of College Instructors.
_Educational Review_, Vol. 44, 1912, pages 249-256.
WILCZYNSKI, E. J. Appointments in College and Universities. _Science_, February 28, 1909; Vol. 29, pages 336ff.
WOLFE, A. B. The Graduate School, Faculty Responsibility, and the Training of University Teachers. _School and Society_, September 16, 1916.
III
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLLEGE TEACHING
=Status of teaching in the colleges=
The investigator of educational practices and methods of teaching is impressed with an unmistakable educational anti-climax, for the conviction grows on him that elementary school teaching is on a relatively high plane, that secondary school teaching is not as effective, and that collegiate teaching, with rare exceptions, is ineffective and in urgent need of reform. A superficial survey of educational literature of the last ten years shows that while the problem of the high school is now receiving earnest attention, elementary education continues to absorb the earnest efforts of an army of vitally interested investigators. The field of college pedagogics is still virgin soil, and no significant or extensive program for improved methods of teaching has yet been advanced.
Three earnest and intelligent students representing three colleges of undisputed standing were asked informally about their instructors for the current semester. Nothing was said to make these students aware that their judgment would hold any significance beyond the friendly conversation. The summary of opinions is offered, not because the investigation is complete and affords a basis for scientific conclusion, but because it reflects typical college teaching in three recognized inst.i.tutions of more than average standing.
STUDENT NO. I | STUDENT NO. II | STUDENT NO. III | | _Teacher A_: A popular | _Teacher A_: A good | _Teacher A_: A very and interesting | teacher of mathematics.| popular teacher of teacher. Talks | He a.s.signs a new lesson| English. If the final enthusiastically, but | for home study. The | examination is given talks all the time. | next day he asks | by another teacher, I Lessons a.s.signed are | questions on the | may not have enough not heard. Students | lesson. The answers are| specific facts to seldom recite. Written | written out on the | pa.s.s. We began Chaucer quizzes on themes of | blackboards. After | last week. He spent a a.s.signed reading are | fifteen minutes all | good part of each rated by an a.s.sistant. | students take their | session reading to us.
The work comes back | seats and the work on | All of us were with an A, a C, or a D,| the blackboard is taken| surprised to find how but we do not know why | up for explanation. He | much more the text the rating was given. | explains every | meant than after our Frequently two students| difficulty very | own reading. In the who worked together are| clearly. We rarely | last session we went marked B and D | cover the lesson. Some | to our book on respectively for the | topics go unexplained | literature and tried same work. Sometimes a | because during the next| to justify the a student who "cribbed"| hour the blackboard | characterization which his outline from | problems are based on | the author gives of another who actually | the lesson. If I | Chaucer. The cla.s.s "worked it up" receives| understood the second | agreed with all in the a higher mark than was | half of each lesson as | book except in one given for the original.| clearly as the first, | characterization. In | I would feel hopeful | the composition work we | of a good grade in the | took up the structure | final examination. | of short narratives.
| | The a.s.signment was to | | find narratives in | | current periodicals, | | in the writings of | | standard authors, in | | newspapers, and then | | attempt to find whether | | the structure we | | studied was followed.
| | In each case we had to | | justify any departure | | from the standard.
| | There was little time | | for the footnotes in | | Chaucer. I hope we are | | not asked for these on | | the final examination.
| | | | _Teacher B_: Rather an | _Teacher B_: A dry | _Teacher B_: A very interesting teacher; | course in Art History | conscientious teacher a.s.signs lessons from a | and Appreciation. We | of chemistry. He gives book. At the beginning | take up the history of | us a ten-minute written of the hour he asks | architecture, painting,| quiz each hour on the questions on the text | and sculpture. The | work in the book or on but is soon carried | names of the best | the matter discussed in away and rambles along | artists are mentioned, | the last lecture. The for the period, | and their many works | rest of the hour is touching on every | confuse us. We memorize| spent in explanation of subject. We never | Praxiteles, Phidias, | difficult points and in complete a chapter or | Myron, the ancient | the application of what topic. The succeeding | cairns, the parts of an| we learned of industry hour we take the next | Egyptian temple. | and physiology. It is chapter, which meets | Pictures are shown on | surprising to see the the same fate. Written | the screen. I elected | interest the cla.s.s tests determine the | this course in the hope| shows in the chemical students" rank. The | that it would teach me | explanations of things grade for the written | something about | we never noticed test is announced, but | pictures, how to judge | before.
the papers are not | them and give me | returned and one never | standards of beauty, | knows why the papers | etc., but it has been | were rated C or D. | history and not | | appreciation so far. | | We do not see any | | beauty in the pictures | | of old madonnas. Even | | the religious ones | | among us say this. | | | | | _Teacher C_: | _Teacher C_: A good, | _Teacher C_: A scholarly A conscientious teacher| clear, effective | instructor in history.
in physics. He a.s.signs | lecturer in chemistry. | He a.s.signs thirty to a definite lesson for | Every lesson we learn a| forty pages in English each recitation of the | definite principle and | History, and then he term. At the beginning | its application. The | lectures to us about of the hour students go| laboratory work of each| the topics discussed by to the board to write | is related to the | the author. He points out answers to | lecture and throws | out errors in dates and questions on the | interesting side lights| places. Occasionally he lesson. The hour is | on it. We have quiz | calls on a student. At spent listening to the | sections once a week. | the end of each month recitation of each | Here the work is oral | he gives a written test.
student and the | and written. | We remember little of explanation of | | what we learned and difficult points. We | | must "bone away" at never cover more than | | about 200 to 300 pages.
one half of the lesson:| | His English is sometimes only one | | delightful and we enjoy third. The next hour | | listening at times, the questions are on | | but I seem to retain the new lesson, not on | | so little. "Yes, half the incompleted portion| | the term is up. We are of the former lesson. | | beginning the reign of My knowledge of physics| | Henry VII."
is punctuated by areas | | of ignorance. These | | alternate with topics | | that I think I | | understand clearly. | | | | | | _Teacher D_: A quiet, | _Teacher D_: A very | _Teacher D_: A very modest man. Sits back | strict teacher of | enthusiastic lecturer comfortably in his seat| English literature. He | in economics. He and asks questions on | a.s.signs text for study,| explains the important a.s.signed texts. The | and we must be prepared| principles in questions review the | for detailed questions | economics. We follow text, and he explains | on each of the great | in a printed syllabus, in further detail the | writers. He is very | so that it is facts in the book. The | strict and detailed. We| unnecessary to take conscientious and | had to know all the | notes. He talks well capable student finds | fifteen qualities of | and makes things clear.
him superfluous; the | Macaulay"s style. "No, | We are given a.s.signments indifferent student | we did not read | in S----"s "Elements of remains unmoved by his | Macaulay this term: we | Economics," on which we phlegmatic | study from a history of| are questioned by presentation; the poor | English literature that| another teacher. "Is student finds him a | tells us all about the | the work in the quiz help; the shirk who | master writers." | section related directly listens and takes notes| | to the lectures?
is saved studying at | | Sometimes. No, we do home. | | not take current | | economic problems. These | | are given in a later | | elective course."
| | | | _Teacher E_: A good | _Teacher E_: A quiet, | _Teacher E_: An teacher of Latin. He | dignified gentleman who| instructor in explains the work, | teaches us psychology. | psychology. His hours hears the lessons, | A chapter is a.s.signed | are weary and dreary.
gives drills, calls on | in the book, and the | A chapter is a.s.signed almost everybody every | hour is spent hearing | in X"s "Elements of hour. The written work | students recite on the | Psychology." He asks a is returned properly | text. He sticks closely| question or two and corrected and rated. | to the book. He | then repeats what the | explains clearly when | author tells us, even | the book is not clear | using the ill.u.s.trations | or not specific enough.| and diagrams found in | The hours drag, for the| the text. Sometimes a | book is good and those | student reads a paper | who studied the lessons| which he prepared. "No, | weary at what seems to | we do not get very much | us needless repet.i.tion.| out of these papers | | read by students. But | | then we get just as | | little from the | | instructor. No, we | | never apply the | | psychology to our own | | thinking nor to | | teaching nor to the | | behavior of children | | or adults."
| | | | _Teacher F_: One | _Teacher F_: A learned | _Teacher F_: A cannot pa.s.s judgment on| Latin scholar who is | forbidding but very this teacher of | very enthusiastic about| strict Latin teacher.
mechanical drawing. He | his specialty. The | His questions are fast gives out a problem, | students exhibit | and numerous and the works a type on the | cheerful tolerance. He | hesitating student is board, and then | a.s.signs a given number | lost. He a.s.signs at distributes the plates.| of lines per day. These| least twenty-five per We draw. He helps us | we prepare at home. In | cent more per lesson when we ask for aid, | cla.s.s we give a | than any other otherwise he walks | translation in English | instructor. The hour is about the room. I | that has distorted | spent in translating, suppose one cannot show| phrases and clauses | parsing, and quizzing teaching ability in | lest we be accused of | on historical and such a subject. | dishonesty in | mythological allusions.
| preparation. The rest | Every "pony" user is | of the time is spent on| soon caught, because | questions of syntax, | he is asked so many | references, footnotes, | questions on each | and the identification | sentence. There is a | of the of the real and | distinct relief when | mythological characters| the hour is over because | in the text. The | he is constantly at you.