Scholarly and objective, the pamphlet was an important doc.u.ment in the history of race relations in the Navy. In language similar to that used in the War Department"s pamphlet on race, the Bureau of Naval Personnel stated officially for the first time that discrimination flowed of necessity out of the doctrine of segregation:

The idea of compulsory racial segregation is disliked by almost all Negroes, and literally hated by many. This antagonism is in part a result of the fact that as a principle it embodies a doctrine of racial inferiority. It is also a result of the lesson taught the Negro by experience that in spite of the legal formula of "separate but equal" facilities, the facilities open to him under segregation are in fact usually inferior as to location or quality to those available to others.[3-82]

[Footnote 3-82: NavPers 15092, 12 Feb 44, p. 10.]

The guide also foreshadowed the end of the old order of things: "The Navy accepts no theories of racial differences in inborn ability, but expects that every man wearing its uniform be trained and used in accordance with his maximum individual capacity determined on the basis of individual performance."[3-83]

[Footnote 3-83: Ibid., p. 1.]

_Forrestal Takes the Helm_

The Navy got a leader sympathetic to the proposition of equal treatment and opportunity for Negroes, and possessed of the bureaucratic skills to achieve reforms, when President Roosevelt appointed Under Secretary James Forrestal to replace Frank Knox, who died suddenly on 28 April 1944. During the next five years Forrestal, a brilliant, complex product of Wall Street, would a.s.sume more and more responsibility for directing the integration effort in the defense establishment. Although no racial crusader, Forrestal had been for many years a member of the National Urban League, itself a pillar of the civil rights establishment. He saw the problem of employing Negroes as one of efficiency and simple fair play, and as the months went by he a.s.sumed an active role in experimenting with changes in the Navy"s policy.[3-84]

[Footnote 3-84: See Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Granger; USAF Oral History Program, Interview with James C. Evans, 24 Apr 73.]

His first experiment was with sea duty for Negroes. After the experience of the _Mason_ and the other segregated ships which actually proved very little, sentiment for a partial integration of the fleet continued to grow in the Bureau of Naval Personnel. As early as April 1943, officers in the Planning and Control Activity recommended that Negroes be included in small numbers in the crews of the larger combat ships. Admiral Jacobs, however, was convinced that "you couldn"t dump 200 colored boys on a crew in battle,"[3-85] so this and similar proposals later in the year never survived pa.s.sage through the bureau.

[Footnote 3-85: Interv, Lee Nichols with Vice Adm Randall Jacobs, 29 Mar 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH.]

Forrestal accepted Jacob"s argument that as long as the war (p. 085) continued any move toward integrating the fighting ships was impractical. At the same time, he agreed with the Special Programs Unit that large concentrations of Negroes in sh.o.r.e duties lowered efficiency and morale. Forrestal compromised by ordering the bureau to prepare as an experiment a plan for the integration of some fleet auxiliary ships. On 20 May 1944 he outlined the problem for the President:

"From a morale standpoint, the Negroes resent the fact that they are not a.s.signed to general service billets at sea, and white personnel resent the fact that Negroes have been given less hazardous a.s.signments." He explained that at first Negroes would be used only on the large auxiliaries, and their number would be limited to not more than 10 percent of the ship"s complement. If this step proved workable, he planned to use Negroes in small numbers on other types of ships "as necessity indicates." The White House answered: "OK, FDR."[3-86]

[Footnote 3-86: Memo, SecNav for President, 20 May 44, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.]

Secretary Forrestal also won the support of the Chief of Naval Operations for the move, but Admiral King still considered integration in the fleet experimental and was determined to keep strict control until the results were known. On 9 August 1944 King informed the commanding officers of twenty-five large fleet auxiliaries that Negroes would be a.s.signed to them in the near future. As Forrestal had suggested, King set the maximum number of Negroes at 10 percent of the ship"s general service. Of this number, 15 percent would be third-cla.s.s petty officers from sh.o.r.e activities, selected as far as possible from volunteers and, in any case, from those who had served the longest periods of sh.o.r.e duty. Of the remainder, 43 percent would be from Cla.s.s A schools and 42 percent from recruit training. The basic 10 percent figure proved to be a theoretical maximum; no ship received that many Negroes.

Admiral King insisted that equal treatment in matters of training, promotion, and duty a.s.signments must be accorded all hands, but he left the matter of berthing to the commanding officers, noting that experience had proved that in the sh.o.r.e establishment, when the percentage of blacks to whites was small, the two groups could be successfully mingled in the same compartments. He also pointed out that a thorough indoctrination of white sailors before the arrival of the Negroes had been useful in preventing racial friction ash.o.r.e.[3-87]

[Footnote 3-87: Ltr, CNO to CO, USS _Antaeus_ et al., 9 Aug 44, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel--a.s.signment of to Ships of the Fleet, P16-3/MM, OpNavArchives.]

King asked all commanders concerned in the experiment to report their experiences.[3-88] Their judgment: integration in the auxiliary fleet worked. As one typical report related after several months of integrated duty:

The crew was carefully indoctrinated in the fact that Negro personnel should not be subjected to discrimination of any sort and should be treated in the same manner as other members of the crew.

The Negro personnel when they came aboard were berthed indiscriminately throughout the crew"s compartments in the same manner as if they had been white. It is felt that the a.s.similation of the general service Negro personnel aboard this ship has been remarkably successful. To the present date (p. 086) there has been no report of any difficulty which could be laid to their color. It is felt that this is due in part, at least, to the high calibre of Negroes a.s.signed to this ship.[3-89]

[Footnote 3-88: Idem to Cmdr, _Antaeus_ et al., 9 Jan 45, P16-3, OpNavArchives.]

[Footnote 3-89: Ltr, CO, USS _Antaeus_, to Chief, NavPers, 16 Jan 45, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel--a.s.signment of to Ships of the Fleet, Ag67/P16-3/MM; see also Memo, Cmdr D. Armstrong for ComSerForPac, 29 Dec 44, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel (General Service Ratings) a.s.signment of to Ships of the Fleet; Ltr, ComSerForPac to Chief, NavPers, 2 Jan 45, with CINCPac&POA end thereto, same sub; Ltrs to Chief, NavPers, from CO, USS _Laramie_, 17 Jan 45, USS _Mattole_, 19 Jan 45, with ComSerForLant end, and USS _Ariel_, 1 Feb 45.

All Incl to Memo, Chief, NavPers, for CINCUSFLEET, 6 Mar 45, sub: Negro Personnel--Expanded Use of, Pers 2119 FB. All in OpNavArchives.]

The comments of his commanders convinced King that the auxiliary vessels in the fleet could be integrated without incident. He approved a plan submitted by the Chief of Naval Personnel on 6 March 1945 for the gradual a.s.signment of Negroes to all auxiliary vessels, again in numbers not to exceed 10 percent of the general service billets in any ship"s complement.[3-90] A month later Negroes were being so a.s.signed in an administratively routine manner.[3-91] The Bureau of Naval Personnel then began a.s.signing black officers to sea duty on the integrated vessels. The first one went to the _Mason_ in March, and in succeeding months others were sent in a routine manner to auxiliary vessels throughout the fleet.[3-92] These a.s.signments were not always carried out according to the bureau"s formula. The commander of the USS _Chemung_, for example, told a young black ensign:

I"m a Navy Man, and we"re in a war. To me, it"s that stripe that counts--and the training and leadership that it is supposed to symbolize. That"s why I never called a meeting of the crew to prepare them, to explain their obligation to respect you, or anything like that. I didn"t want anyone to think you were different from any other officer coming aboard.[3-93]

[Footnote 3-90: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for CINCUSFLEET, 6 Mar 45, sub: Negro Personnel--Expanded Use of, with 1st Ind, from Fleet Adm, USN, for Vice CNO, 28 Mar 45, same sub, FFI/P16-3/MM, OpNavArchives.]

[Footnote 3-91: BuPers Cir Ltr 105-45, 13 Apr 45, sub: Negro General-Service Personnel, a.s.signment of to Auxiliary Vessels of the Fleet.]

[Footnote 3-92: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CO, USS _Mason_, 16 Mar 45, sub: Negro Officer--a.s.signment of, Pers 2119-FB; see also idem to CO, USS _Kaweah_, 16 Jul 45, sub: Negro Officer--a.s.signment of to Auxiliary Vessel of the Fleet, AO 15/P16-1; idem to CO, USS _Laramie_, 21 Aug 45, same sub, AO 16/P16-1. All in OpNavArchives.]

[Footnote 3-93: Quoted in Rowan, "Those Navy Boys Changed My Life." pp 57-58.]

Admitting Negroes to the WAVES was another matter considered by the new secretary in his first days in office. In fact, the subject had been under discussion in the Navy Department for some two years. Soon after the organization of the women"s auxiliary, its director, Capt.

Mildred H. McAfee, had recommended that Negroes be accepted, arguing that their recruitment would help to temper the widespread criticism of the Navy"s restrictive racial policy. But the traditionalists in the Bureau of Naval Personnel had opposed the move on the grounds that WAVES were organized to replace men, and since there were more than enough black sailors to fill all billets open to Negroes there was no need to recruit black women.

Actually, both arguments served to mask other motives, as did Knox"s rejection of recruitment on the grounds that integrating women into the Navy was difficult enough without taking on the race (p. 087) problem.[3-94] In April 1943 Knox "tentatively" approved the "tentative"

outline of a bureau plan for the induction of up to 5,000 black WAVES, but nothing came of it.[3-95] Given the secretary"s frequent protestation that the subject was under constant review,[3-96] and his statement to Captain McAfee that black WAVES would be enlisted "over his dead body,"[3-97] the tentative outline and approval seems to have been an attempt to defer the decision indefinitely.

[Footnote 3-94: Ltr, Mildred M. Horton to author, 14 Mar 75, CMH files.]

[Footnote 3-95: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for SecNav, 27 Apr 43, Pers 17MD, BuPersRecs, Memo, SecNav for Adm Jacobs, 29 Apr 43, 54-1-43, GenRecsNav.]

[Footnote 3-96: See, for example, Ltr, SecNav to Algernon D. Black, City-Wide Citizen"s Cmte on Harlem, 23 Apr 43, 54-1-43, GenRecsNav.]

[Footnote 3-97: Quoted in Ltr, Horton to author, 14 Mar 75.]

Secretary Knox"s delay merely attracted more attention to the problem and enabled the protestors to enlist powerful allies. At the time of his death, Knox was under siege by a delegation from the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) demanding a rea.s.sessment of the Navy"s policy on the women"s reserve.[3-98] His successor turned for advice to Captain McAfee and to the Bureau of Naval Personnel where, despite Knox"s "positive and direct orders" against recruiting black WAVES, the Special Programs Unit had continued to study the problem.[3-99]

Convinced that the step was just and inevitable, the unit also agreed that the WAVES should be integrated. Forrestal approved, and on 28 July 1944 he recommended to the President that Negroes be trained in the WAVES on an integrated basis and a.s.signed "wherever needed within the continental limits of the United States, preferably to stations where there are already Negro men." He concluded by reiterating a Special Programs Unit warning: "I consider it advisable to start obtaining Negro WAVES before we are forced to take them."[3-100]

[Footnote 3-98: Memo, Ralph Bard for Forrestal, 4 May 44, sub: Navy Policy on Recruitment of Negro Females as WAVES; Ltr, Nathan Cowan, CIO, to Forrestal, 20 May 44, 54-1-1. Both in GenRecsNav.]

[Footnote 3-99: Memo, J. V. F. (Forrestal) for Adm Denfeld (ca. 7 Jun 44); Memo, Capt Mildred McAfee for Adm Denfeld, 7 Jun 44; both in 54-1-4, GenRecsNav. See also Memo, Chief, NavPers, for SecNav, 11 May 44, sub: Navy Policy on Recruitment of Negro Females as WAVES, Pers 17, GenRecsNav.]

[Footnote 3-100: Memo, Forrestal for President, 28 Jul 44, 54-1-4, GenRecsNav.]

To avoid the shoals of racial controversy in the midst of an election year, Secretary Forrestal did trim his recommendations to the extent that he retained the doctrine of separate but equal living quarters and mess facilities for the black WAVES. Despite this offer of compromise, President Roosevelt directed Forrestal to withhold action on the proposal.[3-101] Here the matter would probably have stood until after the election but for Thomas E. Dewey"s charge in a Chicago speech during the presidential campaign that the White House was discriminating against black women. The President quickly instructed the Navy to admit Negroes into the WAVES.[3-102]

[Footnote 3-101: Memo, Lt Cmdr John Tyree (White House aide) for Forrestal, 9 Aug 44, 54-1-4, GenRecsNav.]

[Footnote 3-102: Navy Dept Press Release, 19 Oct 44.]

The first two black WAVE officers graduated from training at Smith College on 21 December, and the enlistment of black women began a week later. The program turned out to be more racially progressive than initially outlined by Forrestal. He had explained to the President that the women would be quartered separately, a provision (p. 088) interpreted in the Bureau of Naval Personnel to mean that black recruits would be organized into separate companies. Since a recruit company numbered 250 women, and since it quickly became apparent that such a large group of black volunteers would not soon be forthcoming, some of the bureau staff decided that the Navy would continue to bar black women. In this they reckoned without Captain McAfee who insisted on a personal ruling by Forrestal. She warned the secretary that his order was necessary because the concept "was so strange to Navy practice."[3-103] He agreed with her that the Negroes would be integrated along with the rest of the incoming recruits, and the Bureau of Naval Personnel subsequently ordered that the WAVES be a.s.similated without making either special or separate arrangements.[3-104]

[Footnote 3-103: Oral History Interview, Mildred McAfee Horton, 25 Aug 69, Center of Naval History.]

[Footnote 3-104: Ltr, a.s.st Chief, NavPers, to CO, NavTraScol (WR), Bronx, N.Y., 8 Dec 44, sub: Colored WAVE Recruits, Pers-107, BuPersRecs.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: LIEUTENANT PICKENS AND ENSIGN WILLS. _First black WAVE officers, members of the final graduating cla.s.s at Naval Reserve Midshipmen"s School (WR), Northhampton, Ma.s.sachusetts._]

By July 1945 the Navy had trained seventy-two black WAVES at Hunter College Naval Training School in a fully integrated and routine manner. Although black WAVES were restricted somewhat in specialty a.s.signments and a certain amount of separate quartering within integrated barracks prevailed at some duty stations, the Special Programs Unit came to consider the WAVE program, which established a forceful precedent for the integration of male recruit training, its most important wartime breakthrough, crediting Captain McAfee and her unbending insistence on equal treatment for the achievement.

Forrestal won the day in these early experiments, but he was a skillful administrator and knew that there was little hope for any fundamental social change in the naval service without the active cooperation of the Navy"s high-ranking officers. His meeting with Admiral King on the subject of integration in the summer of 1944 has been reported by several people. Lester Granger, who later became Forrestal"s special representative on racial matters, recalled:

He [Forrestal] said he spoke to Admiral King, who was then chief of staff, and said, "Admiral King, I"m not satisfied with the situation here--I don"t think that our Navy Negro personnel are getting a square break. I want to do something about it, but I can"t do anything about it unless the officers are behind me. I want your help. What do you say?"