[Footnote 20-7: See transcribed taped interviews conducted by Nichols of the UPI with military and civilian personnel in the Charleston, S.C., area in March 1963, copies in the James C. Evans Collection, AMHRC.]

[Footnote 20-8: Ltr, Diggs to President, 27 Jun 62, copy in Gesell Collection, John F. Kennedy Library.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: CIVIL RIGHTS LEADERS AT THE WHITE HOUSE. _Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy poses with (from left) Martin Luther King, Jr., Roy Wilkins, Whitney M. Young, Jr., and A. Philip Randolph._]

Especially galling to civil rights leaders was the conviction that the armed forces had set up artificial and self-imposed barriers to a needed social reform. In the end this conviction seemed to spur them on. The American Veterans Committee, for example, demanded that when a community "mistreats American troops, such as in Montgomery, Alabama, or flaunts its Ku Klux Klan membership, as does Selma, Alabama, the entire area should be placed "off limits" to purchases by Defense installations and by Servicemen."[20-9] Others were convinced that the federal government was in effect supporting segregation through its widespread economic a.s.sistance programs to state and local governments and to private inst.i.tutions in the fields of employment, housing, education, health service, military affairs, and agriculture. In August 1961 a group of fifty civil rights leaders pet.i.tioned the (p. 504) President to end such federal support.[20-10] On a more modest scale, the Congress of Racial Equality asked the Army in August 1962 to declare segregated restaurants in Aberdeen, Maryland, off limits to all military personnel. The activist group justified its demand by stating that "the Army declares dangerous or immoral establishments off limits to soldiers and what is more dangerous or immoral in a democracy than racial intolerance?"[20-11] In this they failed to distinguish between the commander"s proper response to what was illegal, for example prost.i.tution, and what was still legal, for example, segregated housing.

[Footnote 20-9: American Veterans Committee, "Audit of Negro Veterans and Servicemen," 1960, p. 16, copy in CMH.]

[Footnote 20-10: Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, "Proposals for Executive Action to End Federally Supported Segregation and Other Forms of Racial Discrimination," August 1961, copy in SD 291.2. See also U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, _Freedom to the Free: A Century of Emanc.i.p.ation_ (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1963), pp.

158ff.]

[Footnote 20-11: Baltimore _Sun_, August 8, 1962. On the particular problem in the Aberdeen area see Telg, President Kennedy to John Field, President"s Cmte on Equal Employment Opportunity, 22 Sep 61, copy in CMH.]

_The Kennedy Administration and Civil Rights_

The strong connection between black morale and military efficiency made it likely that the new Secretary of Defense would be intimately concerned with problems of discrimination. Highly trained in modern managerial techniques, Robert S. McNamara came to the Pentagon with the idea of inst.i.tuting a series of fundamental changes in the management of the armed forces through manpower reorganization and what was becoming known as systems a.n.a.lysis. Whatever his att.i.tude toward racial justice, his initial interest in the Defense Department"s black employees, military and civilian, was closely linked to his concern for military efficiency. Less than a week on the job, he called for information on the status of Negroes in the department. He had heard that some services were better integrated than others, and he wanted his a.s.sistant Secretary for Manpower to investigate. He wanted to know if there was a "fair" proportion of Negroes in the higher civilian grades. If not, he asked, "what do you recommend be done about it?"[20-12] These questions, and indeed all action on civil rights matters originating in his office in the months to come, indicated that McNamara, like his predecessors, would limit his reforms to discrimination within the services themselves. But as time pa.s.sed, McNamara, like President Kennedy, would warm to the civil rights cause and eventually both would become firmly committed.

[Footnote 20-12: Memo, SecDef for ASD (MP&R) Designate, 27 Jan 61, ASD (M) 291.2.]

The Kennedy administration has been closely identified with civil rights, yet the President"s major biographers and several of his a.s.sistants agree that his commitment to civil rights reform did not emerge full-blown on inauguration day. It was only in the last months of his administration that Kennedy, subjected to civil rights demands and sharing the interests and experiences of his brother Robert, the Attorney General, threw himself wholeheartedly into the civil (p. 505) rights fray.[20-13] As senator and later as President, Kennedy was sympathetic to the aspirations of the black minority, appreciated its support in his campaign, but regarded civil rights as one, and not the most pressing, problem facing the Chief Executive. Even his administrations"s use of federal marshals during the freedom rides in 1961 and its use of both marshals and troops at Oxford, Mississippi, in 1962 and troops again in Alabama in 1963 were justified in the name of enforcement of federal judicial processes. Well into 1963 he studiously downplayed the civil rights issues involved.

[Footnote 20-13: This discussion of Kennedy"s civil rights position is based on Arthur M. Schlesinger, _A Thousand Days_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965); Theodore C. Sorensen, _Kennedy_ (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); and the following oral history interviews in the J. F. Kennedy Library: Berl Bernhard with Harris Wofford, 29 Nov 65, Roy Wilkins, 13 Aug 64, and Thurgood Marshall, 7 Apr 64; Joseph O"Connor with Theodore Hesburgh, 27 Mar 66. Also consulted were Sorensen"s _The Kennedy Legacy_ (New York: New American Library, 1970); Victor S. Navasky, _Kennedy Justice_ (New York: Atheneum, 1971); William G. Carlton, "Kennedy in History," in _Perspectives on 20th Century America: Readings and Commentary_, ed. Otis L. Graham, Jr.

(New York: Dodd, Mead, 1973); Edwin Guthman, _We Band of Brothers: A Memoir of Robert F. Kennedy_ (New York: Harper and Row, 1971); Burke Marshall, _Federation and Civil Rights_ (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).]

Kennedy was convinced that the only answer to the injustices suffered by Negroes was a series of strong laws, but he was also certain that such legislation was impossible to achieve in 1961. To urge it on an unwilling Congress would only jeopardize his legislative program, increase the black minority"s feeling of frustration, and divide the nation in a period of national crisis. Discussing the Civil Rights Commission"s "non-negotiable" demands concerning the organized reserves, for example, commission member Father Theodore Hesburgh remembered the President saying:

Look, I have a serious problem in West Berlin, and I do not think this is the proper time to start monkeying around with the Army.... I have no problem with the principle of this, and we"ll certainly be doing it, but at this precise moment I have to keep uppermost in mind that I may need these units ... and I can"t have them in the midst of a social revolution while I"m trying to do this.[20-14]

[Footnote 20-14: Quoted from O"Connor"s oral history interview with Hesburgh, 27 Mar 66.]

Kennedy temporized. He would promptly and positively endorse the principle of equal rights and enforce the civil rights decisions of the Supreme Court through negotiation, moral suasion, executive order, and, when necessary, through the use of federal marshals.[20-15] The Justice Department meanwhile would pursue a vigorous course of litigation to insure the franchise for Negroes from which, he believed, all civil blessings flowed.

[Footnote 20-15: For a critical interpretation of the Kennedy approach to enforcing the Court"s decisions, see Navasky"s _Kennedy Justice_, pp.

97-98, and Howard Zinn, _Postwar America_, 1945-1971 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), ch.

iv.]

Civil rights was not mentioned in Kennedy"s first State of the Union message. With the exception of a measure to outlaw literacy and poll tax requirements for voting, no civil rights bills were sent to the Eighty-seventh Congress. Yet at one of his first press conferences, the President told newsmen that a plan to withhold federal funds in certain segregation cases would be included in a general study "of where the Federal Government might usefully place its power and influence to expand civil rights."[20-16] On 6 March 1961 he signed Executive Order 10925, which combined the committees on government (p. 506) contracts and employment policy into a single Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity chaired by the Vice President.[20-17] His order, he believed, specified sanctions "sweeping enough to ensure compliance."[20-18] Finally, in November 1962, after numerous and increasingly pointed reminders from civil rights advocates, the President issued Executive Order 11063, directing executive agencies to take action against discrimination in the sale or lease of federal housing or any housing bought with loans from or insured by the federal government.[20-19]

[Footnote 20-16: Press Conference, 1 Mar 61, _Public Papers of the Presidents: John F. Kennedy, 1961_, p. 137.]

[Footnote 20-17: 26 _Federal Register_ 1977.]

[Footnote 20-18: Presidential statement, 7 Mar 61, _Public Papers of the Presidents: Kennedy, 1961_, p. 150. See also "President"s Remarks on Meeting of Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity," New York _Times_, April 12, 1961; Memo, President for Heads of All Executive Departments and Agencies, 18 Apr 61, copy in CMH.]

[Footnote 20-19: Executive Order 11063, 20 Nov 62, 27 _Federal Register_ 11527.]

Besides executive orders, the White House had other ways, less formal but perhaps more efficient, of getting the federal bureaucracy to move on civil rights. Upon the recommendation of Special a.s.sistant Frederick G. Dutton, the President created the Civil Rights Subcabinet Group in March 1961 to coordinate the administration"s civil rights actions. Under Dutton"s chairmanship, this group included the a.s.sistant secretaries responsible for racial matters in their respective agencies, with White House Special Civil Rights a.s.sistant Harris Wofford serving as executive secretary.[20-20] The group regularly scrutinized the racial programs of the various departments, demanding reports and investigations of racial matters and insuring that the interests and criticisms of the administration were quickly disseminated at the operations level of the federal agencies affected.[20-21]

[Footnote 20-20: Memo, Frederick G. Dutton, Spec a.s.st to President, for Secy of State et al., 31 Mar 61, and Memo, ASD (M) for Dutton (ca. 10 Apr 61), both in ASD (M) 291.2; Memo, Nicholas D. Katzenbach for Vice President Elect, 23 Nov 64, Burke Marshall Papers, and Interv, Bernhard with Wofford, both in J. F. Kennedy Library. According to Wofford there was some discussion over just who would represent the Department of Defense in the group. The department"s initial choice seems to have been Evans, but Wofford rejected this selection on the grounds that Evans"s position did not place him in the department"s power structure. He preferred to have Yarmolinsky or a.s.sistant Secretary Carlisle P.

Runge. Yarmolinsky insisted that Runge be included so that it would not appear that racial reform in the Department of Defense was a duty only for the administration"s men.]

[Footnote 20-21: See Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 7 Nov 61, sub: Minority Representation in Officer Procurement and Training, ASD (M) 291.2.

See also Memos, Wofford for Civil Rights Subcabinet Group, 15 Sep, 20 Oct, and 10 Nov 61, copies in CMH.]

There is evidence that the subcabinet group was responsible for considerable cross-fertilization of civil rights programs among the departments. For example, it appears to have used the experience of black servicemen in interstate travel to move the Department of Justice and, with the a.s.sistance of Attorney General Kennedy, the Interstate Commerce Commission toward eliminating such discrimination.[20-22] And it was through the subcabinet group that the Attorney General"s interest in minority voting rights was translated into a voting registration campaign among servicemen.[20-23]

[Footnote 20-22: Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 21 Jul 61, sub: Meeting, Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights, Friday, July 21, 1961 (Judge Jackson represented Mr. Runge); Ltr, SecDef to Atty Gen, 23 Jun 61; both in ASD (M) 291.2.]

[Footnote 20-23: Civil Rights Subcabinet Group, Notes on Meeting of 16 Jun 61; Ltr, Spec a.s.st to Postmaster Gen to James C. Evans, 26 Jan 62; Memo, Evans for Spec a.s.st to ASD (M), James W. Platt, 20 Mar 62; Memo, Harris Wofford for Subcabinet Group, 30 Jan 62. Copies of all in CMH.]

The existence of this group, with its surveys, questions, and (p. 507) investigations, put constant pressure on the armed services. They were not singled out for special treatment, but they obviously attracted the attention of both the White House and the civil rights organizations because their commitment to equal treatment and opportunity affected so many people and their past successes and remaining problems were having a decided impact on American society. In the words of presidential a.s.sistant Wofford, the Defense Department was "a world within itself," a world which by its magnitude could make a "significant contribution by its example" to the solution of the nation"s racial problems.[20-24]

[Footnote 20-24: Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 21 Jul 61, sub: Meeting, Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights, Friday, July 21, 1961 (Judge Jackson represented Mr. Runge), ASD (M&P) 291.2.]

The size of the department"s racial program alluded to by Wofford also invited the attention of a federal agency outside White House control.

The United States Commission on Civil Rights was continually investigating the services, probing allegations of discrimination against black servicemen and evaluating the role of the department in community race relations.[20-25] Of particular interest to an understanding of racial policy in the 1960"s is the commission"s comprehensive survey, t.i.tled "The Services and Their Relations with the Community," which concluded that the continued existence of community discrimination against servicemen and their dependents had a detrimental effect on the morale and efficiency of significant numbers of them. The commission cataloged the traditional alibis of military commanders: "it is not the mission of the services to concern themselves with the practices of the local community"; the commander"s responsibility "stops at the gate"; harmonious relations with the community must be maintained; and, finally, in order to achieve harmony, servicemen must comply with local laws and customs. Yet when it came to other areas of community relations, particularly where the general health, welfare, and morale of the servicemen were involved, the commission found that commanders did not hesitate to ally themselves with servicemen, local community controversy and opposition notwithstanding. The commission wanted the services to take a similar stand against racial discrimination in the community. Although its specific recommendations differed little from those of civil rights leaders, its position as an independent federal agency and its access to the news media added a constant and special pressure on the services.[20-26]

[Footnote 20-25: See, for example, Ltr, Chmn, Commission on Civil Rights, to SecDef, 26 Mar 62; Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 7 May 62, sub: Survey, United States Commission on Civil Rights; Memo, Under SecNav for ASD (M), 25 May 62, sub: United States Commission on Civil Rights Survey of the Department of Defense; Ltr, Yarmolinsky to Berl I. Bernhard, Staff Dir, U.S. Comm on Civil Rights, 14 Nov 62; Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 31 May 61; Ltr, Bernhard to Runge, 6 Jul 61; Ltr Runge to Bernhard, 17 Jul 61. Copies of all in CMH.]

[Footnote 20-26: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, "The Services and Their Relations With the Community,"

17 Jun 63.]

Another pressure on the armed forces in the early sixties was exerted by the civil rights bureaucracy in the White House itself. Various presidential a.s.sistants subjected the services" reports on progress in the equal opportunity field to unprecedented scrutiny, asking questions that forced the Defense Department to explain or justify its racial policies and practices.[20-27] In March 1961, civil rights a.s.sistants on the President"s staff inquired about the number of (p. 508) Negroes on the Defense Department"s military and civilian screening boards.[20-28] Later, Special a.s.sistant Frank D. Reeves inquired about the employees working in the executive area of the department and suggested that the front offices do something about hiring more black office workers.[20-29] And again as a result of a number of questions raised about the Navy"s race policy, presidential a.s.sistant Wofford sponsored a White House meeting on 18 September 1961 for several civil rights representatives and Adam Yarmolinsky, Special a.s.sistant to the Secretary of Defense, with the Chief of Naval Personnel, Vice Adm.

William R. Smedberg. Beginning with Yarmolinsky"s probing questions concerning the perennial problem of racial composition of the Steward"s Branch, the meeting evolved into a general review of the Navy"s recent problems and achievements in race relations.[20-30]

[Footnote 20-27: For examples of DOD reports submitted to the White House on this subject, see Memo, ASD (M) for Harris Wofford, 15 Nov 61, and idem for Frank D. Reeves, Spec a.s.st to President, 29 Jun 61.

For examples of White House interest in these reports, see James C. Evans, OASD (M), Notes on Civil Rights Subcabinet Group Meeting, 2 Feb and 2 Mar 62. All in ASD (M) 291.2.]

[Footnote 20-28: Memo, Yarmolinsky for Runge, 13 May 61; Memo, ASD (M) for SA et al., 16 Mar 61, sub: Personnel Screening Boards; both in ASD (M) 291.2.]

[Footnote 20-29: Memo, Frank D. Reeves, Spec a.s.st to President, for SecDef, Attn: Adam Yarmolinsky, 19 Apr 61, copy in CMH.]

[Footnote 20-30: Ltr, Harris Wofford to ASD (M), 18 Sep 61; Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 25 Sep 61, sub: Negro Naval Personnel; Informal Memo, Evans for Runge, 22 Sep 61, same sub. All in ASD (M) 291.2.]

At times this White House scrutiny could be aggressively critical.

There was, for example, small comfort for Defense Department officials in Dutton"s review of department comments on the recommendations of the Civil Rights Leadership Conference submitted to the White House in August 1961.[20-31] Dutton wanted to know more about the department"s inquiry into possible racial discrimination in the sentences meted out by military courts. He was concerned with the allegation, categorically denied by the Defense Department, that black servicemen with school-aged dependents were being moved off bases to avoid integrating base schools. He wanted a prompt investigation. Dutton was impatient with the Navy"s explanation for the continuing predominance of Negroes in the Steward"s Branch, and he was especially critical of the racial situation in the National Guard. He wanted a progress report on these points. Finally, he was unhappy with the lack of Negroes in officer training, an executive area, he claimed, in which civilian agencies were forging ahead. He wanted something done about that also.[20-32]

[Footnote 20-31: Composed of representatives of some fifty civil rights groups under the chairmanship of Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights presented to President Kennedy a list of proposals for executive action to end federally supported segregation. See U.S.

Commission on Civil Rights, _Freedom to the Free_, p. 129.]

[Footnote 20-32: Memo, Dutton for Yarmolinsky, 26 Oct 61, copy in ASD (M) 291.2 (22 May 61).]

The disquietude White House staff members produced among Defense Department officials was nothing compared to the trauma induced by the President"s personal attention. John Kennedy rarely intervened but he did so on occasion quickly and decisively and in a way ill.u.s.trative of his administration"s civil rights style. He acted promptly, for example, when he noticed an all-white unit from the Coast Guard Academy marching in his inaugural parade. His call to the Secretary of the Treasury Douglas Dillon on inauguration night led to the admission of the first black students to the Coast Guard Academy. He elaborated on the incident during his first cabinet meeting, asking each (p. 509) department head to a.n.a.lyze the minority employment situation in his own department. He was also upset to see "few, if any" black honor guardsmen in the units that greeted visiting Ghanian President Kwame Nkrumah on 13 March, an observation not lost on Secretary McNamara.

"Would it be possible," the new defense chief asked his manpower a.s.sistant, "to introduce into these units a reasonable number of negro personnel?"[20-33] An immediate survey revealed that Negroes accounted for 14 percent of the Air Force honor unit, 8 percent of the Army"s, and 2.2 percent of the Marines Corps". The 100-man naval unit had no black members.[20-34]

[Footnote 20-33: Memo, SecDef for ASD (M), 13 Mar 61, ASD (M) 291.2.]