These proposals marked a high point in the effort to simplify and (p. 577) reduce the use of racial designations by the Department of Defense.

Although several versions of Fitt"s 1964 draft order were discussed in later years, none was ever published.[22-66] Nor did the Bureau of the Budget, to which the matter was referred for the development of a government-wide policy, publish any instructions. In fact, by the mid-1960"s an obvious trend had begun in the Department of Defense toward broader use of racial indicators but narrower definition of race.

[Footnote 22-66: L. Howard Bennett, Unt.i.tled Minutes of Equal Opportunity Council Meetings on the Subject of Racial Indicators, 30 Sep 66; Memo, Bennett for Thomas Morris and Jack Moskowitz, 8 Dec 66, sub: Actions to Aid in a.s.suring Equality of Opportunity During Ratings, a.s.signment, Selection, and Promotion Processes, copies of both in CMH.

Judge Bennett was the executive secretary of the Equal Opportunity Council within the Office of the Secretary of Defense, an interdepartmental working group dealing with racial indicators in September 1966 and consisting of two members from each manpower office of the services and P. M. Timpane of the DASD (Equal Opportunity) office.]

Several changes in American society were responsible for the changes.

The need for more exact racial doc.u.mentation overcame the argument for removing racial designations, for the civil rights experts both within and outside the department demanded more detailed racial statistics to protect and enlarge the equal opportunity gains of the sixties. The demand was also supported by representatives of the smaller racial minorities who, joining in the civil rights revolution, developed a self-awareness that made detailed racial and ethnic statistics mandatory. The shift was made possible to a great extent by the change in public opinion toward racial minorities. As one civil rights official later noted, the change in att.i.tude had caused black servicemen to reconsider their belief that detrimental treatment necessarily followed racial identification.[22-67] Ironically, just a decade after the McNamara directive on equal opportunity, a departmental civil rights official, himself a Negro, was defending the use of photographs in the selection process on the grounds that such procedures were necessary in any large organization where individuals were relatively unknown to their superiors.[22-68] So strong had the services" need for black officers become, it could be argued, that a promotion board"s knowledge of a candidate"s race redounded to the advantage of the black applicants. For whatever reason, the pressure to eliminate racial indicators from personnel forms had largely disappeared at the end of the 1960"s.

[Footnote 22-67: Memo, Bennett for ASD (M) and DASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels, and CR), 8 Dec 66, copy in CMH.]

[Footnote 22-68: Interv, author with Johnson, 9 Aug 73.]

The Gesell Committee"s investigations also forced the Department of Defense to consider the possibility of discrimination in the rarefied area of emba.s.sy and special mission a.s.signments and the certainty of discrimination against black servicemen in local communities near some overseas bases. Concerning the former, the staff of the civil rights deputy concluded that such a.s.signments were voluntary and based on special selection procedures. Race was not a factor except for three countries where a.s.signments were "based on politically ethnic considerations."[22-69] Nevertheless, Fitt began to discuss with the services ways to attract more qualified black volunteers for (p. 578) a.s.signments to attache, mission, and military a.s.sistance groups.

[Footnote 22-69: Memo, Exec to DASD (CR) for DASD (CR), 20 Mar 64; see also OASD (CR), Summary of Military Personnel a.s.signments in Overseas Areas; both in ODASD (CR) files. Negroes were not the only Americans excluded from certain countries for "politically ethnic considerations." Jewish servicemen were barred from certain Middle East countries.]

The department was less responsive to the Gesell Committee"s recommendations on racial restrictions encountered off base overseas.

The services, traditionally, had shunned consideration of this matter, citing their role as guests. When the Department of Defense outlined the commander"s responsibility regarding off-base discrimination overseas, it expressly authorized commanders to impose sanctions in foreign communities, yet just five weeks later the services clarified the order for the press, explaining that sanctions would be limited to the United States.[22-70] A spokesman for the U.S. Army in Germany admitted that discrimination continued in restaurants and bars, adding that such discrimination was illegal in Germany and was limited to the lowest cla.s.s establishments.[22-71] Supporting these conclusions was a spate of newspaper reports of segregated establishments in certain areas of Okinawa and the neighborhood around an Army barracks near Frankfurt, Germany.[22-72]

[Footnote 22-70: DOD directive cited in Gesell Committee"s "Final Report," p. 7; see also New York _Times_, September 12, 1963.]

[Footnote 22-71: New York _Times_ and Washington _Post_, December 29, 1964.]

[Footnote 22-72: See, for example, New York _Herald Tribune_, January 3, 1965; New York _Times_, March 29, 1964.]

Despite these continuing press reports, the services declared in mid-1965 that the "overwhelming majority" of overseas installations were free of segregation problems in housing or public accommodations.

One important exception to this overwhelming majority was reported by General Paul Freeman, the commander of U.S. Army Forces in Europe. He not only admitted that the problem existed in his command but also concluded that it had been imported from the United States. The general had met with Gerhard Gesell and subsequently launched a special troop indoctrination program in Europe on discrimination in public accommodations. He also introduced a voluntary compliance program to procure open housing.[22-73]

[Footnote 22-73: Memo for Rcd, Timpane, 25 Nov 64, ODASD (CR) files.]

The Gesell Committee had repeatedly a.s.serted that discrimination existed only in areas near American bases, and its most serious manifestations were "largely inspired by the att.i.tude of a minority of white servicemen" who exerted social pressure on local businessmen. It was, therefore, a problem for American forces, and not primarily one for its allies. The civil rights office, however, preferred to consider the continuing discrimination as an anti-American phenomenon rather than a racial problem.[22-74] Fitt and his successor seemed convinced that such discrimination was isolated and its solution complex because of the difficulty in drawing a line between the att.i.tudes of host nations and American GI"s. Consequently, the problem continued throughout the next decade, always low key, never widespread, a problem of black morale inadequately treated by the department.

[Footnote 22-74: Paul Memo.]

The failure to solve the problem of racial discrimination overseas and, indeed, the inability to liquidate all remaining vestiges of discrimination within the military establishment, const.i.tuted the major shortfall of McNamara"s equal opportunity policy. With no (p. 579) attempt to shift responsibility to his subordinates,[22-75] McNamara later reflected with some heat on the failure of his directive to improve treatment and opportunities for black servicemen substantially and expeditiously: "I was naive enough in those days to think that all I had to do was show my people that a problem existed, tell them to work on it, and that they would then attack the problem. It turned out of course that not a G.o.dd.a.m.n thing happened."[22-76]

[Footnote 22-75: For an example of McNamara"s extremely self-critical judgments on the subject of equal opportunity, see Brock Brower, "McNamara Seen Now, Full Length," _Life_ 64 (May 10, 1968): 78.]

[Footnote 22-76: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.]

Although critical of his department"s performance, McNamara would probably admit that more than simple recalcitrance was involved. For example, the services" traditional opposition to outside interference with the development of their personnel policies led naturally to their opposition to any defense programs setting exact command responsibilities or dictating strict monitoring of their racial progress. Defense officials, respecting service att.i.tudes, failed to demand an exact accounting. Again, the services" natural reluctance to court congressional criticism, a reluctance shared by McNamara and his defense colleagues, led them all to avoid unpopular programs such as creating ombudsmen at bases to channel black servicemen"s complaints.

As one manpower official pointed out, all commanders professed their intolerance of discrimination in their commands, yet the prospect of any effective communication between these commanders and their subordinates suffering such discrimination remained unlikely.[22-77]

Again defense officials, restrained by the White House from antagonizing Congress, failed to insist upon change.

[Footnote 22-77: Memo, William C. Baldes, ODASD (CR), for DASD (CR), 8 Jul 63, ASD (M) 291.2.]

Finally, while it was true that the services had not responded any better to McNamara"s directive than to any of several earlier and less noteworthy calls for racial equality within the military community, it was not true that the reason for the lack of progress lay exclusively with the service. Against the background of the integration achievements of the previous decade, a feeling existed among defense officials that such on-base discrimination as remained was largely a matter of detail. Even Fitt shared the prevailing view. "In three years of close attention to such matters, I have observed [no] ...

great gains in on-base equality," because, he explained to his superior, "_the basic gains were made in the 1948-1953 period_."[22-78]

It must be remembered that discrimination operating within the armed forces was less tractable and more difficult to solve than the patterns of segregation that had confronted the services of old or the off-base problems confronting them in the early 1960"s. The services had reached what must have seemed to many a point of diminishing returns in the battle against on-base discrimination, a point at which each successive increment of effort yielded a smaller result than its predecessor.

[Footnote 22-78: Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 2 Jul 64, copy in CMH. Emphasis not in original.]

No one--not the Civil Rights Commission, the Gesell Committee, the civil rights organizations, and, judging from the volume of complaints, not even black servicemen themselves--seriously tried to disabuse these officials of their satisfaction with the pace of reform. (p. 580) Certainly no one equated the importance of on-base discrimination with the blatant off-base discrimination that had captured everyone"s attention. In fact, problems as potentially explosive as the discrimination in the administration of military justice were all but ignored during the 1960"s.[22-79]

[Footnote 22-79: The administration of military justice was not considered by the Civil Rights Commission nor by the Gesell Committee, although it was mentioned once by the NAACP as a cause of numerous complaints and once by the Deputy a.s.sistant Secretary for Civil Rights in regard to black representation on courts-martial. See NAACP, "Proposals for Executive Action to End Federal Supported Segregation and Other Forms of Racial Discrimination," submitted to the White House on 29 Aug 61, White House Central Files, J. F. Kennedy Library; Memo, Philip M. Timpane, ODASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels, and CR) for DASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels and CR), 23 Feb 65, sub: Representation by Race on Courts-Martial. ODASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels, and CR) files.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: USAF GROUND CREW, TAN SON NHUT AIR BASE, VIETNAM, _relaxes over cards in the alert tent_.]

The sense of satisfaction that pervaded Fitt"s comment, however understandable, was lamentable because it helped insure that certain inequities in the military community would linger. The failure of Negroes to win skilled job a.s.signments and promotions, for example, would remain to fester and contribute significantly to the bitterness visited upon a surprised Department of Defense in later years. In brief, because the services had become a model of racial equality when judged by contemporary standards, the impulse of almost all concerned was to play down the reforms still needed on base and turn instead to the pressing and spectacular challenges that lay in wait outside the gates.

CHAPTER 23 (p. 581)

From Voluntary Compliance to Sanctions

The Defense Department"s att.i.tude toward off-base discrimination against servicemen underwent a significant change in the mid-1960"s.

At first Secretary McNamara relied on his commanders to win from the local communities a voluntary accommodation to his equal opportunity policy. Only after a lengthy interval, during which the acc.u.mulated evidence demonstrated that voluntary compliance would, in some cases, not be forthcoming, did he take up the cudgel of sanctions. His use of this powerful economic weapon proved to be circ.u.mscribed and of brief duration, but its application against a few carefully selected targets had a salubrious and widespread effect. At the same time developments in the civil rights movement, especially the pa.s.sage of strong new legislation in 1964, permitted servicemen to depend with considerable a.s.surance upon judicial processes for the redress of their grievances.

Sanctions were distasteful, and almost everyone concerned was anxious to avoid their use. The Gesell Committee wanted them reserved for those recalcitrants who had withstood the informal but determined efforts of local commanders to obtain voluntary compliance. McNamara agreed. "There were plenty of things that the commanders could do in a voluntary way," he said later, and he wanted to give them time "to get to work on this problem."[23-1] His princ.i.p.al civil rights a.s.sistants considered it inappropriate to declare businesses or local communities off limits while the services were still in the process of developing voluntary action programs and before the full impact of new federal civil rights legislation on those programs could be tested. As for the services themselves, each was on record as being opposed to any use of sanctions in equal opportunity cases. The 1963 equal opportunity directive of the Secretary of Defense reflected this general reluctance. It authorized the use of sanctions, but in such a carefully restricted manner that for three years agencies of the Department of Defense never seriously contemplated using them.

[Footnote 23-1: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.]

_Development of Voluntary Action Programs_

Despite this obvious aversion to the use of sanctions in equal opportunity cases, the public impression persisted that Secretary McNamara was trying to use military commanders as instruments for forcing the desegregation of civilian communities. Actually, the (p. 582) Gesell Committee and the McNamara directive had demanded no such thing, as the secretary"s civil rights deputy was repeatedly forced to point out. Military commanders, Fitt explained, were obligated to protect their men from harm and to secure their just treatment.

Therefore, when "harmful civilian discrimination" was directed against men in uniform, "the wise commander seeks to do something about it."

Commanders, he observed, did not issue threats or demand social reforms; they merely sought better conditions for servicemen and their families through cooperation and understanding. As for the general problem of racial discrimination in the United States, that was a responsibility of the civilian community, not the services.[23-2]

[Footnote 23-2: See Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 2 Jul 64; Fitt, "Remarks Before the Civilian Aides Conference of the Secretary of the Army," 6 Mar 64; copies of both in CMH. The quoted pa.s.sage is from the latter doc.u.ment.]

Exhibiting a similar concern for the sensibilities of congressional critics, Secretary McNamara a.s.sured the Senate Armed Services Committee that he had no plans "to utilize military personnel as a method of social reform." At the same time he reiterated his belief that troop efficiency was affected by segregation, and added that when such a connection was found to exist "we should work with the community involved." He would base such involvement, he emphasized, on the commander"s responsibility to maintain combat readiness and effectiveness.[23-3] Similar rea.s.surances had to be given the military commanders, some of whom saw in the Gesell recommendations a demand for preferential treatment for Negroes and a level of involvement in community affairs that would interfere with their basic military mission.[23-4] To counter this belief, Fitt and his successor hammered away at the Gesell Committee"s basic theme: discrimination affects morale; morale affects military efficiency. The commander"s activities in behalf of equal opportunity for his men in the community is at least as important as his interest in problems of gambling, vice, and public health, and is in furtherance of his military mission.[23-5]

[Footnote 23-3: Robert S. McNamara, Testimony Before Senate Armed Services Committee, 3 Oct 63, quoted in New York _Times_, October 4, 1963.]

[Footnote 23-4: Memo, William C. Valdes, OASD (M), for Alfred B. Fitt, 8 Jul 63, sub: Case Studies of Minority Group Problems at Keesler AFB, Brookley AFB, Greenville AFB, and Columbus AFB, copy in CMH.]

[Footnote 23-5: See Shulman, "The Civil Rights Policies of the Department of Defense," 4 May 65.]

McNamara"s civil rights a.s.sistants tried to provide explicit guidance on the extent to which it was proper for base commanders to become involved in the community. Fitt organized conferences with base commanders to develop techniques for dealing with off-base discrimination, and his office provided commanders with legal advice to counter the arguments of authorities in segregated communities.

Fitt also encouraged commanders to establish liaison with local civil rights groups whose objectives and activities coincided with departmental policy. At his request, a.s.sistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower Paul devised numerous special instructions and asked the services to issue regulations supporting commanders in their attempts to change community att.i.tudes toward black servicemen. These regulations, in turn, called on commanders to enlist community support for equal treatment and opportunity measures, utilizing in the (p. 583) cause their command-community relations committees. Consisting of base officials and local business and community leaders, these committees had originally been organized by the services to improve relations between the base and town. Henceforth, they would become the means by which the local commanders might introduce measures to secure equal treatment for servicemen.[23-6]

[Footnote 23-6: Memos: DASD (CR) for White, a.s.soc Spec Council to President, 9 Jul 64; Philip M. Timpane.

Staff a.s.st, ODASD (CP, IR, & CR), for DASD (CP, IR, & CR), 11 Feb 65, sub: Service Reports on Equal Rights Activities; DASD (CP, IR, & CR) for John G.

Stewart, 23 Dec 64, sub: Civil Rights Responsibilities of the Department of Defense.

Copies of all in CMH. For a discussion of the composition and activities of these command-community relations committees and a critical a.n.a.lysis of the command initiatives in the local community in general, see David Sutton, "The Military Mission Against Off-Base Discrimination,"