PRECAUTIONS REGARDING PREPARATION

=Must not be too Long.=--Two precautions seem advisable in the preparatory step. The first is that too long a time should not be spent over it. There is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and drag forward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to be presented. Under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely to be introduced, and often a train of a.s.sociations out of harmony with the meaning and spirit of the lesson is started. This is especially dangerous in lessons in literature and history. Only those experiences should be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of the ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the new lesson.

=Must Recall Vital Ideas.=--The most active, vivid, and powerful ideas in the pupil"s mind are those which are closely connected with his life.

This suggests the second precaution, namely, the use wherever possible of the ideas a.s.sociated with his surroundings, his games, his occupations. When this is done, not only will the new knowledge have a much greater interest attached to it but it will also be much more vividly apprehended. This will be referred to further in connection with the use of ill.u.s.trations in teaching.

NECESSITY OF PREPARATION

Teachers, however, are not always agreed as to the amount of time or emphasis to be given to this preparatory step. If the teacher can a.s.sure himself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something with which the children are undoubtedly familiar, he may, many argue, safely omit such preparatory work. Indeed it is evident that after leaving school the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand the ideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presenting themselves in practical life. On the other hand, however, it is to be remembered that the young child is, at the best, feeling his way in the process of adjusting himself to new experiences. For this reason, the first work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether the pupils are in a proper att.i.tude for the new knowledge, and, so far as is necessary, prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge as is related to the new experiences to be presented. Although, therefore, the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learning process, since it const.i.tutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledge acquired through previous learning processes, it may be accepted as a step in the teacher"s method of controlling the learning process.

EXAMPLES OF PREPARATION

The following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step of preparation may be considered by the student-teacher:

In a lesson in phonic reading in a primary cla.s.s, the preparation should consist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupil already knows that are to be used in the new lesson. In a nature study lesson on "The Rabbit," in a Form II cla.s.s, the preparation should include a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regarding the wild rabbit. They may have observed its timidity, its manner of running, what it feeds upon, where it makes its home, its colour during the winter and during the summer, the kind of tracks it makes in the snow, etc. All these facts will be useful in interpreting the new observations and in a.s.sisting the pupils to make new inferences. In a lesson in a Form III cla.s.s on "Ottawa as a Commercial Centre," the preparation consists of a recall of the pupil"s knowledge regarding the position of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa, Gatineau, Rideau, Lievre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of the Rideau and Chaudiere; the forests to the north and west, with their immense supplies of pine, spruce, and hemlock; and the fact that it is the Dominion capital. All these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance of Ottawa. In a literature lesson in a Form III cla.s.s on _The Charge of the Light Brigade_, the preparation would involve a recall of some deed of personal heroism with which the pupils are familiar, such as that of John Maynard, Grace Darling, or any similar one nearer home. Recall how such a deed is admired and praised, and the memory of the doer is cherished and revered. Then the teacher should tell the story of Balaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of, in order that the pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem. In a grammar lesson on "The Adverbial Objective" the preparation should consist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb, an adjective, and sometimes another adverb. Upon this knowledge alone can a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built. In an arithmetic lesson on "Multiplication of Decimals," in a Form IV cla.s.s, the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals, of the interconversion of decimals and fractions (for example, .05 = 5 hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths = .0027, etc.); and of the multiplication of fractions. Unless the pupil can do these operations, it is obviously impossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anything more than a merely mechanical process.

PREPARATION MERELY AIDS SELECTION

Before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method, it will be well again to call attention to the fact that this is not one of the four recognized stages of the learning process, but rather a subsidiary feature of the second, or apperceptive stage. In other words, actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a new experience, not through a review of former experience, but by an active relating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretation of the new problem.

CHAPTER XI

LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY

OR

PROCESS OF SYNTHESIS

=Learning a Unifying Process.=--It has been seen that the learner, in gaining control of new knowledge, must organize into the new experience elements selected from former experiences. For instance, when a person gains a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he not only brings forward in consciousness from his former knowledge the ideas--rind, flesh, seed, etc.,--to interpret the strange object, but also a.s.sociates these into a single experience, a new fruit. So long also as the person referred to in an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factors three experiences--seeing a boy at the fence, seeing the vineyard, and finally, seeing the boy eating grapes--these would not, as three such distinct experiences, const.i.tute a knowledge of grape-stealing. On the other hand, as soon as these are combined, or a.s.sociated by a relating act of thought, the different factors are organized into a new idea symbolized by the expression, _grape-stealing_.

=Examples From School-room Procedure.=--A similar relating process is involved when the learner faces a definite school problem. When, for instance, the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign , he must not only bring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideas of a line, of two dots, and of a certain mathematical process, but must also a.s.sociate these into a new idea, division-sign. So also a person may know that air takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer, that the north-east trade-winds blow over the Sahara from land areas, and that the Sahara is situated just north of the equator. But the mind must unify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of the condition of the rainfall in that quarter.

NATURE OF SYNTHESIS

=Deals with Former Experiences.=--This mental organizing, or unifying, of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the new experience, is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis. The term synthesis, however, must be used with the same care as was noted in regard to the term a.n.a.lysis. Synthesis does not mean that totally _new_ elements are being unified, but merely that whatever selected elements of old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem, are built, or organized, into a new system; and const.i.tute, for the time being, one"s knowledge and control of that problem. This is well exemplified by noting the growth of a person"s knowledge of any object or topic. Thus, so long as the child is able to apperceive only the three sides and three angles of a triangle, his idea of triangle includes a synthesis of these. When later, through the building up of his geometric knowledge, he is able to apperceive that the interior angles equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expands through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge.

=All Knowledge a Synthesis.=--The fact that all knowledge is an organization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at the process from the other direction. The adult who has complete knowledge of an orange has it as a single experience. This experience is found, however, to represent a co-ordination of other experiences, as touch, taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each of these separate characteristics is an a.s.sociation of simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of the orange, for instance, is itself a complex made up of certain muscular, touch, and temperature sensations. From this it is evident that the knowledge of an orange, although a unity of experience in adult life, is really a complex, or synthesis, made up of a large number of different elements.

What is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea.

Whether it be the understanding of a plant, an animal, a city, a picture, a poem, an historical event, an arithmetical problem, or a scientific experiment, the process is always the same. The apperceptive process of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements of former experience, or the process of a.n.a.lysis-synthesis, is universal in learning. Expressed in another form, what is at first indistinct and indefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting, for the interpretation of the new presentation, suitable old ideas and setting up relationships among them. a.n.a.lysis, or selection, is incomplete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis; synthesis, or organization, is impossible without a.n.a.lysis, or selection. It is on account of the mind"s ability to unify a number of mental factors into a single experience, that the process of unification, or synthesis, is said to imply economy within our experiences. This fact will become even more evident, however, when later we study such mental processes as sense perception and conception.

INTERACTION OF PROCESSES

It is to be noted, however, that the selecting and the relating of the different interpreting ideas during the learning process are not necessarily separate and distinct parts of the lesson. In other words, the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole ma.s.s of disconnected elements, and then later build them up into a new organic experience. There is, rather, in almost every case, a continual interplay between the selecting and relating activity, or between a.n.a.lysis and synthesis, throughout the whole learning process. As soon, for instance, as a certain feature, or characteristic, is noted, this naturally relates itself to the central problem. When later, another characteristic is noted, this may relate itself at once both with the topic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more complete knowledge of the object. Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth of knowledge similar to that ill.u.s.trated in the case of the scholar"s knowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay of a.n.a.lysis and synthesis, or of selecting and relating different groups of ideas relative to the topic. This would he ill.u.s.trated by noting a pupil"s study of the cat. The child may first note that the cat catches and eats rats and mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will at once relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the food of the animal. Later he may note that the cat has sharp claws, padded feet, long pointed canines, and a rough tongue; these facts being also related as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. In addition to this, however, the latter facts will further relate themselves to the former as cases of adaptation, when the child notes that the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning it from the bones, and that its claws and padded feet are suited to surprising and seizing its living prey.

=Example from Study of Conjunctive p.r.o.noun.=--This continuous selecting and relating throughout a process of learning is also well ill.u.s.trated in the pupil"s process of learning the _conjunctive p.r.o.noun_. By bringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as "The men _who_ brought it returned at once"; the pupil may be asked first to apperceive the subordinate clause, _who brought it_. This will not likely be connected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of _who_.

From this, however, he pa.s.ses to a consideration of the value of the clause and its relation. Hereupon, these various ideas at once co-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that _who_ is conjunctive.

Next, he may be called upon to a.n.a.lyse the subordinate clause. This, at first, also may seem to the child a disconnected experience. From this, however, he pa.s.ses to the idea of _who_ as subject, and thence to the fact that it signifies man. Thereupon these ideas unify themselves with the word _who_ under the idea _p.r.o.noun_. Thereupon a still higher synthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complex system, or idea--_conjunctive p.r.o.noun_.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

This progressive interaction of a.n.a.lysis and synthesis is ill.u.s.trated by the accompanying figure, in which the word _who_ represents the presented unknown problem; _a_, _b_, and _c_, the selecting and relating process which results in the knowledge, _conjunction_; _a"_, _b"_, and _c"_, the building up of the _p.r.o.noun_ notion; and the circle, the final organization of these two smaller systems into a single notion, _conjunctive p.r.o.noun_.

The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a poem, the study of a plant or animal, will furnish excellent examples of these subordinate stages of a.n.a.lysis and synthesis within a lesson. It is to be noted further that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons to fall into certain well marked sub-divisions. Each of these minor co-ordinations cl.u.s.tering around a sub-topic of the larger problem, the whole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinct parts. Moreover, the child"s knowledge of the whole lesson will largely depend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separate co-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem.

ALL KNOWLEDGE UNIFIED

Nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the single lesson. As each lesson is organized, it will, if fully apprehended, be more or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject.

In this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of a single subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, various groups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within the subject, in accordance with important relations which the pupil may read into their data. Thus, in grammar, one sequence of lessons is organized into a complete knowledge of sentences; another group, into a complete knowledge of inflection; a smaller group within the latter, into a complete knowledge of tense or mood. It is thus that the mind is able to construct its ma.s.s of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences, and the various smaller divisions into topics.

CHAPTER XII

APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

OR

LAW OF EXPRESSION

=Practical Significance of Knowledge.=--In our consideration of the fourth phase of the learning process, or the law of expression, it is necessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regarding the correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection it was learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty, or problem, and that it finds significance and value in so far as it enables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties with which he may be confronted. In other words, man is primarily a doer, and knowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual along certain recognized lines. This being the case, while instruction aims to control the process by which the child is to acquire valuable social experience, or knowledge, it is equally important that it should promote skill by correlating that knowledge with expression, or should strive to influence action while forming character. To apperceive, for instance, the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a very limited value if the student is not able to give expression to these in his own conversation. It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far as possible, expression should enter as a factor in the learning process.

=Examples of Expression.=--Man"s expressive acts are found, however, to differ greatly in their form. When one is hurt, he distorts his face and cries aloud; when he hears a good speech he claps his hands and shouts approval; when he reads an amusing story he laughs; when he learns of the death of a friend he sheds tears; when he is affronted his face grows red, his muscles tense, and he strikes a blow or breaks into a torrent of words; when he has seen a striking incident he tells some one about it or writes an account to a distant friend. When his feelings are stirred by a patriotic address, he springs to his feet and sings, "G.o.d Save the King." The desire that his team should carry the foot-ball to the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in that direction. When he conceives how he may launch a successful venture, the business man at once proceeds to carry it into effect. These are all examples of _expression_. Every impression, idea, or thought, tends sooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression.

TYPES OF ACTION

=A. Uncontrolled Actions.=--Pa.s.sing to an examination of such physical, or motor, activities, we find that man"s expressive acts fall into three somewhat distinct cla.s.ses. A young child is found to engage in many movements which seem dest.i.tute of any conscious direction. Some of these movements, such as breathing, sneezing, winking, etc., are found to be useful to the child, and imply what might be termed inherited control of conduct, though they do not give expression to any consciously organized knowledge, or experience. At other times, his bodily movements seem to be mere random, or impulsive, actions. These latter actions at times arise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour, as, for instance, stretching, kicking, etc., as seen in a baby. At other times these uncontrolled acts have their origin in the various impressions which the child is receiving from his surroundings, or environment, as when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with his hand. Although, moreover, these instinctive movements may come in time under conscious control, such actions do not in themselves imply conscious control or give expression to organized knowledge.

=B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control.=--To a second cla.s.s of actions belong the orderly movements which are both produced and directed by consciousness. When, in distinction to the movements referred to above, a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box, or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion, a conscious aim, or intention, produces the act, and conscious effort sustains it until the aim is reached. The distinction between mere impulsive and instinctive actions on the one hand, and guided effort on the other, will be considered more fully in Chapter x.x.x.

=C. Habitual Actions.=--Thirdly, as has been noted in Chapter II, both consciously directed and uncontrolled action may, by repet.i.tion, become so fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness, or becomes habitual.

Our expressive actions may be cla.s.sified, therefore, into three important groups as follows: