It will be noticed that the steel runs from the flame, but tends to hold together. Should foaming commence in the molten metal, it shows an excess of oxygen and that the metal is being burned.

High carbon steels are very difficult to handle. It is claimed that a drop or two of copper added to the weld will a.s.sist the flow, but will also harden the work. An excess of oxygen reduces the amount of carbon and softens the steel, while an excess of acetylene increases the proportion of carbon and hardens the metal. High speed steels may sometimes be welded if first coated with semi-steel before welding.

_Aluminum._--This is the most difficult of the commonly found metals to weld. This is caused by its high rate of expansion and contraction and its liability to melt and fall away from under the flame. The aluminum seems to melt on the inside first, and, without previous warning, a portion of the work will simply vanish from in front of the operator"s eyes. The metal tends to run from the flame and separate at the same time. To keep the metal in shape and free from oxide, it is worked or puddled while in a plastic condition by an iron rod which has been flattened at one end.

Several of these rods should be at hand and may be kept in a jar of salt water while not being used. These rods must not become coated with aluminum and they must not get red hot while in the weld.

The surfaces to be joined, together with the adjacent parts, should be cleaned thoroughly and then washed with a 25 per cent solution of nitric acid in hot water, used on a swab. The parts should then be rinsed in clean water and dried with sawdust. It is also well to make temporary fire clay moulds back of the parts to be heated, so that the metal may be flowed into place and allowed to cool without danger of breakage.

Aluminum must invariably be preheated to about 600 degrees, and the whole piece being handled should be well covered with sheet asbestos to prevent excessive heat radiation.

The flame is formed with an excess of acetylene such that the second cone extends about an inch, or slightly more, beyond the small blue-white point.

The torch should be held so that the end of this second cone is in contact with the work, the small cone ordinarily used being kept an inch or an inch and a half from the surface of the work.

Welding rods of special aluminum are used and must be handled with their end submerged in the molten metal of the weld at all times.

When aluminum is melted it forms alumina, an oxide of the metal. This alumina surrounds small ma.s.ses of the metal, and as it does not melt at temperatures below 5000 degrees (while aluminum melts at about 1200), it prevents a weld from being made. The formation of this oxide is r.e.t.a.r.ded and the oxide itself is dissolved by a suitable flux, which usually contains phosphorus to break down the alumina.

_Copper._--The whole piece should be preheated and kept well covered while welding. The flame must be much larger than for the same thickness of steel and neutral in character. A slight excess of acetylene would be preferable to an excess of oxygen, and in all cases the molten metal should be kept enveloped with the flame. The welding rod is of copper which contains phosphorus; and a flux, also containing phosphorus, should be spread for about an inch each side of the joint. These a.s.sist in preventing oxidation, which is sure to occur with heated copper.

Copper breaks very easily at a heat slightly under the welding temperature and after cooling it is simply cast copper in all cases.

_Bra.s.s and Bronze._--It is necessary to preheat these metals, although not to a very high temperature. They must be kept well covered at all times to prevent undue radiation. The flame should be produced with a nozzle one size larger than for the same thickness of steel and the small blue-white cone should be held from one-fourth to one-half inch above the surface of the work. The flame should be neutral in character.

A rod or wire of soft bra.s.s containing a large percentage of zinc is suitable for adding to bra.s.s, while copper requires the use of copper or manganese bronze rods. Special flux or borax may be used to a.s.sist the flow.

The emission of white smoke indicates that the zinc contained in these alloys is being burned away and the heat should immediately be turned away or reduced. The fumes from bra.s.s and bronze welding are very poisonous and should not be breathed.

RESTORATION OF STEEL

The result of the high heat to which the steel has been subjected is that it is weakened and of a different character than before welding. The operator may avoid this as much as possible by first playing the outer flame of the torch all over the surfaces of the work just completed until these faces are all of uniform color, after which the metal should be well covered with asbestos and allowed to cool without being disturbed. If a temporary heating oven has been employed, the work and oven should be allowed to cool together while protected with the sheet asbestos. If the outside air strikes the freshly welded work, even for a moment, the result will be breakage.

A weld in steel will always leave the metal with a coa.r.s.e grain and with all the characteristics of rather low grade cast steel. As previously mentioned in another chapter, the larger the grain size in steel the weaker the metal will be, and it is the purpose of the good workman to avoid, as far as possible, this weakening.

The structure of the metal in one piece of steel will differ according to the heat that it has under gone. The parts of the work that have been at the melting point will, therefore, have the largest grain size and the least strength. Those parts that have not suffered any great rise in temperature will be practically unaffected, and all the parts between these two extremes will be weaker or stronger according to their distance from the weld itself. To restore the steel so that it will have the best grain size, the operator may resort to either of two methods: (1) The grain may be improved by forging. That means that the metal added to the weld and the surfaces that have been at the welding heat are hammered much as a blacksmith would hammer his finished work to give it greater strength. The hammering should continue from the time the metal first starts to cool until it has reached the temperature at which the grain size is best for strength. This temperature will vary somewhat with the composition of the metal being handled, but in a general way, it may be stated that the hammering should continue without intermission from the time the flame is removed from the weld until the steel just begins to show attraction for a magnet presented to it. This temperature of magnetic attraction will always be low enough and the hammering should be immediately discontinued at this point. (2) A method that is more satisfactory, although harder to apply, is that of reheating the steel to a certain temperature throughout its whole ma.s.s where the heat has had any effect, and then allowing slow and even cooling from this temperature. The grain size is affected by the temperature at which the reheating is stopped, and not by the cooling, yet the cooling should be slow enough to avoid strains caused by uneven contraction.

After the weld has been completed the steel must be allowed to cool until below 1200 Fahrenheit. The next step is to heat the work slowly until all those parts to be restored have reached a temperature at which the magnet just ceases to be attracted. While the very best temperature will vary according to the nature and hardness of the steel being handled, it will be safe to carry the heating to the point indicated by the magnet in the absence of suitable means of measuring accurately these high temperatures.

In using a magnet for testing, it will be most satisfactory if it is an electromagnet and not of the permanent type. The electric current may be secured from any small battery and will be the means of making sure of the test. The permanent magnet will quickly lose its power of attraction under the combined action of the heat and the jarring to which it will be subjected.

In reheating the work it is necessary to make sure that no part reaches a temperature above that desired for best grain size and also to see that all parts are brought to this temperature. Here enters the greatest difficulty in restoring the metal. The heating may be done so slowly that no part of the work on the outside reaches too high a temperature and then keeps the outside at this heat until the entire ma.s.s is at the same temperature. A less desirable way is to heat the outside higher than this temperature and allow the conductivity of the metal to distribute the excess to the inside.

The most satisfactory method, where it can be employed, is to make use of a bath of some molten metal or some chemical mixture that can be kept at the exact heat necessary by means of gas fires that admit of close regulation.

The temperature of these baths may be maintained at a constant point by watching a pyrometer, and the finished work may be allowed to remain in the bath until all parts have reached the desired temperature.

WELDING INFORMATION

The following tables include much of the information that the operator must use continually to handle the various metals successfully. The temperature scales are given for convenience only. The composition of various alloys will give an idea of the difficulties to be contended with by consulting the information on welding various metals. The remaining tables are of self-evident value in this work.

TEMPERATURE SCALES Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit 200 392 1000 1832 225 437 1050 1922 250 482 1100 2012 275 527 1150 2102 300 572 1200 2192 325 617 1250 2282 350 662 1300 2372 375 707 1350 2462 400 752 1400 2552 425 797 1450 2642 450 842 1500 2732 475 887 1550 2822 500 932 1600 2912 525 977 1650 3002 550 1022 1700 3092 575 1067 1750 3182 600 1112 1800 3272 625 1157 1850 3362 650 1202 1900 3452 675 1247 2000 3632 700 1292 2050 3722 725 1337 2100 3812 750 1382 2150 3902 775 1427 2200 3992 800 1472 2250 4082 825 1517 2300 4172 850 1562 2350 4262 875 1607 2400 4352 900 1652 2450 4442 925 1697 2500 4532 950 1742 2550 4622 975 1787 2600 4712

METAL ALLOYS (Society of Automobile Engineers)

Babbitt-- Tin........................... 84.00% Antimony...................... 9.00% Copper........................ 7.00%

Bra.s.s, White-- Copper........................ 3.00% to 6.00% Tin (minimum) ................ 65.00% Zinc.......................... 28.00% to 30.00%

Bra.s.s, Red Cast-- Copper........................ 85.00% Tin........................... 5.00% Lead.......................... 5.00% Zinc.......................... 5.00%

Bra.s.s, Yellow-- Copper........................ 62.00% to 65.00% Lead.......................... 2.00% to 4.00% Zinc.......................... 36.00% to 31.00%

Bronze, Hard-- Copper........................ 87.00% to 88.00% Tin........................... 9.50% to 10.50% Zinc.......................... 1.50% to 2.50%

Bronze, Phosphor-- Copper........................ 80.00% Tin........................... 10.00% Lead.......................... 10.00% Phosphorus.................... .50% to .25%

Bronze, Manganese-- Copper (approximate) ......... 60.00% Zinc (approximate) ........... 40.00% Manganese (variable) ......... small

Bronze, Gear-- Copper........................ 88.00% to 89.00% Tin........................... 11.00% to 12.00%

Aluminum Alloys-- Aluminum Copper Zinc Manganese No. 1.. 90.00% 8.5-7.0% No. 2.. 80.00% 2.0-3.0% 15% Not over 0.40% No. 3.. 65.00% 35.0%

Cast Iron-- Gray Iron Malleable Total carbon........3.0 to 3.5% Combined carbon.....0.4 to 0.7% Manganese...........0.4 to 0.7% 0.3 to 0.7% Phosphorus..........0.6 to 1.0% Not over 0.2% Sulphur...........Not over 0.1% Not over 0.6% Silicon............1.75 to 2.25% Not over 1.0%

Carbon Steel (10 Point)-- Carbon........................ .05% to .15% Manganese..................... .30% to .60% Phosphorus (maximum).......... .045% Sulphur (maximum)............. .05% (20 Point)-- Carbon........................ .15% to .25% Manganese..................... .30% to .60% Phosphorus (maximum).......... .045% Sulphur (maximum)............. .05% (35 Point)-- Manganese..................... .50% to .80% Carbon........................ .30% to .40% Phosphorus (maximum).......... .05% Sulphur (maximum)............. .05% (95 Point)-- Carbon........................ .90% to 1.05% Manganese..................... .25% to .50% Phosphorus (maximum).......... .04% Sulphur (maximum)............. .05%

HEATING POWER OF FUEL GASES

(In B.T.U. per Cubic Foot.) Acetylene....... 1498.99 Ethylene....... 1562.9 Hydrogen........ 291.96 Methane........ 953.6 Alcohol......... 1501.76

MELTING POINTS OF METALS Platinum....................3200 Iron, wrought...............2900 malleable.................2500 cast......................2400 pure......................2760 Steel, mild.................2700 Medium....................2600 Hard......................2500 Copper......................1950 Bra.s.s.......................1800 Silver......................1750 Bronze......................1700 Aluminum....................1175 Antimony....................1150 Zinc........................ 800 Lead........................ 620 Babbitt..................500-700 Solder...................500-575 Tin......................... 450

_NOTE.--These melting points are for average compositions and conditions.

The exact proportion of elements entering into the metals affects their melting points one way or the other in practice._

TENSILE STRENGTH OF METALS

Alloy steels can be made with tensile strengths as high as 300,000 pounds per square inch. Some carbon steels are given below according to "points":

Pounds per Square Inch Steel, 10 point................ 50,000 to 65,000 20 point..................... 60,000 to 80,000 40 point..................... 70,000 to 100,000 60 point..................... 90,000 to 120,000 Iron, Cast..................... 13,000 to 30,000 Wrought...................... 40,000 to 60,000 Malleable.................... 25,000 to 45,000 Copper......................... 24,000 to 50,000 Bronze......................... 30,000 to 60,000 Bra.s.s, Cast.................... 12,000 to 18,000 Rolled....................... 30,000 to 40,000 Wire......................... 60,000 to 75,000 Aluminum....................... 12,000 to 23,000 Zinc........................... 5,000 to 15,000 Tin............................ 3,000 to 5,000 Lead........................... 1,500 to 2,500

CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

(Based on the Value of Silver as 100)

Heat Electricity Silver....................100 100 Copper.................... 74 99 Aluminum.................. 38 63 Bra.s.s..................... 23 22 Zinc...................... 19 29 Tin....................... 14 15 Wrought Iron.............. 12 16 Steel..................... 11.5 12 Cast Iron................. 11 12 Bronze.................... 9 7 Lead...................... 8 9

WEIGHT OF METALS