(Per Cubic Inch) Pounds Pounds Lead............ .410 Wrought Iron..... .278 Copper.......... .320 Tin.............. .263 Bronze.......... .313 Cast Iron........ .260 Bra.s.s........... .300 Zinc............. .258 Steel........... .283 Aluminum......... .093

EXPANSION OF METALS

(Measured in Thousandths of an Inch per Foot of Length When Raised 1000 Degrees in Temperature) Inch Inch Lead............ .188 Bra.s.s............ .115 Zinc............ .168 Copper........... .106 Aluminum........ .148 Steel............ .083 Silver.......... .129 Wrought Iron..... .078 Bronze.......... .118 Cast Iron........ .068

CHAPTER VI

ELECTRIC WELDING

RESISTANCE METHOD

Two distinct forms of electric welding apparatus are in use, one producing heat by the resistance of the metal being treated to the pa.s.sage of electric current, the other using the heat of the electric arc.

The resistance process is of the greatest use in manufacturing lines where there is a large quant.i.ty of one kind of work to do, many thousand pieces of one kind, for instance. The arc method may be applied in practically any case where any other form of weld may be made. The resistance process will be described first.

It is a well known fact that a poor conductor of electricity will offer so much resistance to the flow of electricity that it will heat. Copper is a good conductor, and a bar of iron, a comparatively poor conductor, when placed between heavy copper conductors of a welder, becomes heated in attempting to carry the large volume of current. The degree of heat depends on the amount of current and the resistance of the conductor.

In an electric circuit the ends of two pieces of metal brought together form the point of greatest resistance in the electric circuit, and the ab.u.t.ting ends instantly begin to heat. The hotter this metal becomes, the greater the resistance to the flow of current; consequently, as the edges of the ab.u.t.ting ends heat, the current is forced into the adjacent cooler parts, until there is a uniform heat throughout the entire ma.s.s. The heat is first developed in the interior of the metal so that it is welded there as perfectly as at the surface.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 42.--Spot Welding Machine]

The electric welder (Figure 42) is built to hold the parts to be joined between two heavy copper dies or contacts. A current of three to five volts, but of very great volume (amperage), is allowed to pa.s.s across these dies, and in going through the metal to be welded, heats the edges to a welding temperature. It may be explained that the voltage of an electric current measures the pressure or force with which it is being sent through the circuit and has nothing to do with the quant.i.ty or volume pa.s.sing. Amperes measure the rate at which the current is pa.s.sing through the circuit and consequently give a measure of the quant.i.ty which pa.s.ses in any given time. Volts correspond to water pressure measured by pounds to the square inch; amperes represent the flow in gallons per minute. The low voltage used avoids all danger to the operator, this pressure not being sufficient to be felt even with the hands resting on the copper contacts.

Current is supplied to the welding machine at a higher voltage and lower amperage than is actually used between the dies, the low voltage and high amperage being produced by a transformer incorporated in the machine itself. By means of windings of suitable size wire, the outside current may be received at voltages ranging from 110 to 550 and converted to the low pressure needed.

The source of current for the resistance welder must be alternating, that is, the current must first be negative in value and then positive, pa.s.sing from one extreme to the other at rates varying from 25 to 133 times a second. This form is known as alternating current, as opposed to direct current, in which there is no changing of positive and negative.

The current must also be what is known as single phase, that is, a current which rises from zero in value to the highest point as a positive current and then recedes to zero before rising to the highest point of negative value. Two-phase of three-phase currents would give two or three positive impulses during this time.

As long as the current is single phase alternating, the voltage and cycles (number of alternations per second) may be anything convenient. Various voltages and cycles are taken care of by specifying all these points when designing the transformer which is to handle the current.

Direct current is not used because there is no way of reducing the voltage conveniently without placing resistance wires in the circuit and this uses power without producing useful work. Direct current may be changed to alternating by having a direct current motor running an alternating current dynamo, or the change may be made by a rotary converter, although this last method is not so satisfactory as the first.

The voltage used in welding being so low to start with, it is absolutely necessary that it be maintained at the correct point. If the source of current supply is not of ample capacity for the welder being used, it will be very hard to avoid a fall of voltage when the current is forced to pa.s.s through the high resistance of the weld. The current voltage for various work is calculated accurately, and the efficiency of the outfit depends to a great extent on the voltage being constant.

A simple test for fall of voltage is made by connecting an incandescent electric lamp across the supply lines at some point near the welder. The lamp should burn with the same brilliancy when the weld is being made as at any other time. If the lamp burns dim at any time, it indicates a drop in voltage, and this condition should be corrected.

The dynamo furnishing the alternating current may be in the same building with the welder and operated from a direct current motor, as mentioned above, or operated from any convenient shafting or source of power. When the dynamo is a part of the welding plant it should be placed as close to the welding machine as possible, because the length of the wire used affects the voltage appreciably.

In order to hold the voltage constant, the Toledo Electric Welder Company has devised connections which include a rheostat to insert a variable resistance in the field windings of the dynamo so that the voltage may be increased by cutting this resistance out at the proper time. An auxiliary switch is connected to the welder switch so that both switches act together. When the welder switch is closed in making a weld, that portion of the rheostat resistance between two arms determining the voltage is short circuited. This lowers the resistance and the field magnets of the dynamo are made stronger so that additional voltage is provided to care for the resistance in the metal being heated.

A typical machine is shown in the accompanying cut (Figure 43). On top of the welder are two jaws for holding the ends of the pieces to be welded.

The lower part of the jaws is rigid while the top is brought down on top of the work, acting as a clamp. These jaws carry the copper dies through which the current enters the work being handled. After the work is clamped between the jaws, the upper set is forced closer to the lower set by a long compression lever. The current being turned on with the surfaces of the work in contact, they immediately heat to the welding point when added pressure on the lever forces them together and completes the weld.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 43--Operating Parts of a Toledo Spot Welder]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 43a.--Method of Testing Electric Welder]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 44.--Detail of Water-Cooled Spot Welding Head]

The transformer is carried in the base of the machine and on the left-hand side is a regulator for controlling the voltage for various kinds of work.

The clamps are applied by treadles convenient to the foot of the operator.

A treadle is provided which instantly releases both jaws upon the completion of the weld. One or both of the copper dies may be cooled by a stream of water circulating through it from the city water mains (Figure 44). The regulator and switch give the operator control of the heat, anything from a dull red to the melting point being easily obtained by movement of the lever (figure 45).

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 45.--Welding Head of a Water-Cooled Welder]

_Welding._--It is not necessary to give the metal to be welded any special preparation, although when very rusty or covered with scale, the rust and scale should be removed sufficiently to allow good contact of clean metal on the copper dies. The cleaner and better the stock, the less current it takes, and there is less wear on the dies. The dies should be kept firm and tight in their holders to make a good contact. All bolts and nuts fastening the electrical contacts should be clean and tight at all times.

The scale may be removed from forgings by immersing them in a pickling solution in a wood, stone or lead-lined tank.

The solution is made with five gallons of commercial sulphuric acid in 150 gallons of water. To get the quickest and best results from this method, the solution should be kept as near the boiling point as possible by having a coil of extra heavy lead pipe running inside the tank and carrying live steam. A very few minutes in this bath will remove the scale and the parts should then be washed in running water. After this washing they should be dipped into a bath of 50 pounds of unslaked lime in 150 gallons of water to neutralize any trace of acid.

Cast iron cannot be commercially welded, as it is high in carbon and silicon, and pa.s.ses suddenly from a crystalline to a fluid state when brought to the welding temperature. With steel or wrought iron the temperature must be kept below the melting point to avoid injury to the metal. The metal must be heated quickly and pressed together with sufficient force to push all burnt metal out of the joint.

High carbon steel can be welded, but must be annealed after welding to overcome the strains set up by the heat being applied at one place. Good results are hard to obtain when the carbon runs as high as 75 points, and steel of this cla.s.s can only be handled by an experienced operator. If the steel is below 25 points in carbon content, good welds will always be the result. To weld high carbon to low carbon steel, the stock should be clamped in the dies with the low carbon stock sticking considerably further out from the die than the high carbon stock. Nickel steel welds readily, the nickel increasing the strength of the weld.

Iron and copper may be welded together by reducing the size of the copper end where it comes in contact with the iron. When welding copper and bra.s.s the pressure must be less than when welding iron. The metal is allowed to actually fuse or melt at the juncture and the pressure must be sufficient to force the burned metal out. The current is cut off the instant the metal ends begin to soften, this being done by means of an automatic switch which opens when the softening of the metal allows the ends to come together. The pressure is applied to the weld by having the sliding jaw moved by a weight on the end of an arm.

Copper and bra.s.s require a larger volume of current at a lower voltage than for steel and iron. The die faces are set apart three times the diameter of the stock for bra.s.s and four times the diameter for copper.

Light gauges of sheet steel can be welded to heavy gauges or to solid bars of steel by "spot" welding, which will be described later. Galvanized iron can be welded, but the zinc coating will be burned off. Sheet steel can be welded to cast iron, but will pull apart, tearing out particles of the iron.

Sheet copper and sheet bra.s.s may be welded, although this work requires more experience than with iron and steel. Some grades of sheet aluminum can be spot-welded if the slight roughness left on the surface under the die is not objectionable.

_b.u.t.t Welding._--This is the process which joins the ends of two pieces of metal as described in the foregoing part of this chapter. The ends are in plain sight of the operator at all times and it can easily be seen when the metal reaches the welding heat and begins to soften (Figure 46). It is at this point that the pressure must be applied with the lever and the ends forced together in the weld.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 46.--b.u.t.t Welder]

The parts are placed in the clamping jaws (Figure 47) with 1/8 to 1/2 inch of metal extending beyond the jaw. The ends of the metal touch each other and the current is turned on by means of a switch. To raise the ends to the proper heat requires from 3 seconds for 1/4-inch rods to 35 seconds for a 1-1/2-inch bar.

This method is applicable to metals having practically the same area of metal to be brought into contact on each end. When such parts are forced together a slight projection will be left in the form of a fin or an enlarged portion called an upset. The degree of heat required for any work is found by moving the handle of the regulator one way or the other while testing several parts. When this setting is right the work can continue as long as the same sizes are being handled.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 47.--Clamping Dies of a b.u.t.t Welder]

Copper, bra.s.s, tool steel and all other metals that are harmed by high temperatures must be heated quickly and pressed together with sufficient force to force all burned metal from the weld.

In case it is desired to make a weld in the form of a capital letter T, it is necessary to heat the part corresponding to the top bar of the T to a bright red, then bring the lower bar to the pre-heated one and again turn on the current, when a weld can be quickly made.

_Spot Welding._--This is a method of joining metal sheets together at any desired point by a welded spot about the size of a rivet. It is done on a spot welder by fusing the metal at the point desired and at the same instant applying sufficient pressure to force the particles of molten metal together. The dies are usually placed one above the other so that the work may rest on the lower one while the upper one is brought down on top of the upper sheet to be welded.

One of the dies is usually pointed slightly, the opposing one being left flat. The pointed die leaves a slight indentation on one side of the metal, while the other side is left smooth. The dies may be reversed so that the outside surface of any work may be left smooth. The current is allowed to flow through the dies by a switch which is closed after pressure is applied to the work.

There is a limit to the thickness of sheet metal that can be welded by this process because of the fact that the copper rods can only carry a certain quant.i.ty of current without becoming unduly heated themselves. Another reason is that it is difficult to make heavy sections of metal touch at the welding point without excessive pressure.

_Lap welding_ is the process used when two pieces of metal are caused to overlap and when brought to a welding heat are forced together by pa.s.sing through rollers, or under a press, thus leaving the welded joint practically the same thickness as the balance of the work.