[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 74]

It is customary, when carrying out a first test, upon both prime mover and auxiliaries, to place every important stage in the expansion in communication with a gage, so that the various pressures may be recorded and later compared with the figures of actual requirement. To do this, in the case of the turbine, it is necessary to bore holes in the cover leading to the various expansion chambers, and into each of these holes to screw a short length of steam pipe, having preferably a loop in its length, to the other end of which the gage is attached. Fig. 74 ill.u.s.trates, diagrammatically, a complete turbine installation, and shows the various points along the course taken by the steam at which it is desirable to place pressure gages. The figure does not show the high-pressure steam pipe, nor any of the turbine valves. With regard to these, it will be desirable to place a steam gage in the pipe, immediately before the main stop-valve, and another immediately after it. Any fall of pressure between the two sides of the valve can thus be detected. To ill.u.s.trate this clearly, Fig. 75 is given, showing the valves of a turbine, and the position of the gages connected to them.

The two gages E and F on either side of the main stop-valve A are also shown. The steam after pa.s.sing through the valve, which, in the case of small turbines, is hand-operated, goes in turn through the automatic stop-valve B, the function of which is to automatically shut steam off should the turbine attain a predetermined speed above the normal, the steam strainer C, and finally through the governing valve D into the turbine. As shown, gages G and H are also fitted on either side of the strainer, and these, in conjunction with gages E and F, will enable any fall in pressure between the first two valves and the governing valve to be found. Up to the governing-valve inlet no throttling of the steam ought to take place under normal conditions, i.e., with all valves open, and consequently any fall in pressure between the steam inlet and this point must be the result of internal wire-drawing. By placing the gages as shown, the extent to which this wire-drawing affects the pressures obtainable can be discovered.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 75]

On varying and even on normal and steady full load, the steam is more or less reduced in pressure after pa.s.sing through the governing valve D; a gage I must consequently be placed between the valve, preferably on the valve itself, and the turbine. Returning to Fig. 74, the gages shown are A, B, C, D, and E, connected to the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth expansions; also F in the turbine and exhaust s.p.a.ce, where there are no blades, G in the exhaust pipe immediately before the main exhaust valve E (see Fig. 73), and H connected to the condenser. On condensing full load it is probable that A, B, and C will all register pressures above the atmosphere, while gages D, E, F, and G will register pressures below the atmosphere, being for this purpose vacuum gages. On the other hand, with a varying load, and consequently varying initial pressures, one or two of the gages may register pressure at one moment and vacuum at another. It will therefore be necessary to place at these points compound gages capable of registering both pressure and vacuum. With the pressures in the various stages constantly varying, however, a gage is not by any means the most reliable instrument for recording such variations. The constant swinging of the finger not only renders accurate reading at any particular moment both difficult and, to an extent, unreliable, but, in addition, the accompanying sudden changes of condition, both of temperature and pressure, occurring inside the gage tube, in a comparatively short time permanently warp this part, and thus altogether destroy the accuracy of the gage. It is well known that even with the best steel-tube gages, registering comparatively steady pressures, this warping of the tube inevitably takes place. The quicker deterioration of such gage tubes, when the gage is registering quickly changing pressures, can therefore readily be conceived, and for this reason alone it is desirable to have all gages, whatever the conditions under which they work, carefully tested and adjusted at short intervals.

If it is desired to obtain reliable registration of the several pressures in the different expansions of a turbine running on a varying load, it would therefore seem advisable to obtain these by some type of external spring gage (an ordinary indicator has been found to serve well for this purpose) which the sudden internal variations in pressure and temperature cannot deleteriously affect.

In view of the great importance he must attach to his gage readings, the tester would do well to test and calibrate and adjust where necessary all the gages he intends using during a test. This he can do with a standard gage-testing outfit. By this means only can he have full confidence in the accuracy of his results.

In like manner it is his duty personally to supervise the connecting and arrangement of the gages, and the preliminary testing for leakage which can be carried out simultaneously with the vacuum test made upon the turbine casing.

Where Thermometers are Required

Equally important with the foregoing is the necessity of calibrating and testing of all thermometers used during a test. Where possible it is advisable to place new thermometers which have been previously tested at all points of high temperature. Briefly running them over, the points at which it is necessary to place thermometers in the entire system of the steam and condensing plant are as follows:

(1) A thermometer in the steam pipe on the boiler, where the pipe leaves the superheater.

(2) In the steam pipe immediately in front of the main stop-valve, near point E in Fig. 75.

(3) In the main governing valve body (see I, Fig. 75) on the inlet side.

(4) In the main governing valve body on the turbine side, which will register temperatures of steam after it has pa.s.sed through the valve.

(5) In the steam-turbine high-pressure chamber, giving the temperature of the steam before it has pa.s.sed through any blades.

(6) In the exhaust chamber, giving the temperature of steam on leaving the last row of blades.

(7) In the exhaust pipe near the condenser.

(8) In the condenser body.

(9) In the circulating-water inlet pipe close to the condenser.

(10) In the circulating-water outlet pipe close to the condenser.

(11) In the air-pump suction pipe close to the condenser.

(12) In the air-pump suction pipe close to the air pump.

It is not advisable to place at those vital points, the readings at which directly or indirectly affect the consumption, two thermometers, say one ordinary chemical thermometer and one thermometer of the gage type, thus eliminating the possibility of any doubt which might exist were only one thermometer placed there.

There is no apparent reason why one should attempt to take a series of temperature readings during a consumption test on varying load. The temperatures registered under a steady load test can be obtained with great reliability, but on a varying load, with constantly changing temperatures at all points, this is impossible. This is, of course, owing to the natural sluggishness of the temperature-recording instruments, of whatever cla.s.s they belong to, in responding to changes of condition. As a matter of fact, the possibility of obtaining correctly the entire conditions in a system running under greatly varying loads is very doubtful indeed, and consequently great reliance cannot be placed upon figures obtained under such conditions.

A few simple calculations will reveal to the tester his special requirements in the direction of measuring tanks, piping, etc., for his steam consumption test. Thus, a.s.suming the turbine to be tested to be of 3000 kilowatt capacity normal load, with a guaranteed steam consumption of, say, 14.5 pounds per kilowatt-hour, he calculates the total water rate per hour, which in this case would be 43,500 pounds, and designs his weighing or measuring tanks to cope with that amount, allowing, of course, a marginal tank volume for overload requirements.

VIII. TROUBLES WITH STEAM TURBINE AUXILIARIES[7]

[7] Contributed to _Power_ by Walter B. Gump.

The case about to be described concerns a steam plant in which there were seven cross-compound condensing Corliss engines, and two Curtis steam turbines. The latter were each of 1500-kilowatt capacity, and were connected to surface condensers, dry-vacuum pumps, centrifugal, hot-well and circulating pumps, respectively. In the ill.u.s.tration (Fig. 76), the original lay-out of piping is shown in full lines. Being originally a reciprocating plant it was difficult to make the allotted s.p.a.ce for the turbines suitable for their proper installation. The trouble which followed was a perfectly natural result of the failure to meet the requirements of a turbine plant, and the description herein given is but one example of a great many where the executive head of a concern insists upon controlling the situation without regard to engineering advice or common sense.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 76. TURBINE AUXILIARIES AND PIPING]

Circulating Pump Fails to Meet Guarantee

Observing the plan view, it will be seen that the condensers for both turbines receive their supply of cooling water from the same supply pipe; that is, the pipes, both suction and discharge, leading to No. 1 condenser are simply branches from No. 2, which was installed first without consideration for a second unit. When No. 1 was installed there was a row of columns from the bas.e.m.e.nt floor to the main floor extending in a plane which came directly in front of the condenser. The column P shown in the plan was so located as to prevent a direct connection between the centrifugal circulating pump and the condenser inlet. The centrifugal pump was direct-connected to a vertical high-speed engine, and the coupling is shown at E in the elevation.

Every possible plan was contemplated to accommodate the engine and pump without removing any of the columns, and the arrangement shown was finally adopted, leaving the column P in its former place by employing an S-connection from the pump to the condenser. It should be stated that the pump was purchased under a guarantee to deliver 6000 gallons per minute under a head of 50 feet, with an impeller velocity of 285 revolutions per minute. The vertical engine to which the pump was connected proved to be utterly unfit for running at a speed beyond 225 to 230 revolutions per minute, and in addition the S-bend would obviously reduce the capacity, even at the proper speed of the impeller.

Besides these factors there was another feature even more serious. It was found that when No. 2 unit was operating No. 1 could not get as great a quant.i.ty of circulating water as when No. 2 was shut down. This was because No. 2 was drawing most of the water, and No. 1 received only that which No. 2 could not pull from the suction pipe A. This will be clear from the fact that the suction and discharge pipes for No. 1 were only 16 inches, while those of No. 2 were 20 inches and 16 inches, respectively. The condenser for No. 2 had 1000 square feet less cooling surface than No. 1, which had 6000 square feet and was supplied with cooling water by means of two centrifugal pumps of smaller capacity than for No. 1 and arranged in parallel. These were each driven by an electric motor, and were termed "The Siamese Twins," due to the way in which they were connected.

The load factor of the plant ranged from 0.22 to 0.30, the load being almost entirely lighting, so that for the winter season the load factor reached the latter figure. The day load was, therefore, light and not sufficient to give one turbine more than from one-fourth to one-third its rated capacity. Under these conditions No. 1 unit was able to operate much more satisfactorily than when fully loaded, because of the fact that the cooling water was more effective. This was, of course, all used by No. 1 unit when No. 2 was not operating. At best, however, it was found that the vacuum could not be made to exceed 24 inches, and during the peak, with the two turbines running, the vacuum would often drop to 12 inches. A vacuum of 16 inches or 18 inches on the peak was considered good.

An Investigation

Severe criticism "rained" heavily upon the engineer in charge, and complaints were made in reference to the high oil consumption. An investigation on the company"s part followed, and the firm which furnished the centrifugal pump and engine was next in order to receive complaints. Repeated efforts were made to increase the speed of the vertical engine to 285 revolutions per minute, but such a speed proved detrimental to the engine, and a lower speed of about 225 revolutions per minute had to be adopted.

A thorough test on the pump to ascertain its delivery at various speeds was the next move, and a notched weir, such as is shown in the elevation, was employed. The test was made on No. 2 cooling tower, not shown in the sketch, and showed that barely 3000 gallons per minute were being delivered to the cooling tower. While the firm furnishing the pump was willing to concede that the pump might not be doing all it should, attention was called to the fact that there might be some other conditions in connection with the system which were responsible for the losses. Notable among these was the hydraulic friction, and when this feature of the case was presented, the company did not seem at all anxious to investigate the matter further; obviously on account of facing a possible necessity for new piping or other apparatus which might cost something.

Approximately 34 feet was the static head of water to be pumped over No.

2 cooling tower. Pressure gages were connected to the suction, discharge, and condenser inlet, as shown at G, G" and G" respectively.

When No. 1 unit was operating alone the gage G showed practically zero, indicating no vacuum in the suction pipe. Observing the same gage when No. 2 unit was running, a vacuum as high as 2 pounds was indicated, showing that No. 2 was drawing more than its share of cooling water from the main A and hence the circulating pump for No. 1 was fighting for all it received. Gage G" indicated a pressure of 21 pounds, while G"

indicated 18.5 pounds, showing a difference of 2.5 pounds pressure lost in the S-bend. This is equivalent to a loss of head of nearly 6 feet, 0.43 pound per foot head being the constant employed. The total head against which the pump worked was therefore

G" + G = 21 + 2, or 23 ---- = 53 0.43

feet approximately. Since the static head was 34 feet, the head lost in friction was evidently

53-34 = 19 feet, or 1900 ---- = 36 53

per cent., approximately.

Supply of Cooling Water Limited

In addition to this the supply of cooling water was limited, the vacuum being extremely low at just the time when efficient operation should be had. The natural result occurred, which was this: As the load on the turbine increased, the amount of steam issuing into the condenser increased, beating [Transcriber: heating?] the circulating water to a temperature which the cooling tower (not in the best condition) was unable to decrease to any great extent. The vacuum gradually dropped off, which indicated that the condenser was being filled with vapor, and in a short time the small centrifugal tail-pump lost its prime, becoming "vapor bound," and the vacuum further decreased. The steam which had condensed would not go into the tail-pump because of the tendency of the dry-pump to maintain a vacuum. When a certain point was reached the dry-vacuum pump started to draw water in its cylinder, and the unit had to be shut down immediately.

Vapor-bound Pumps