_Bending Pipes and Tubes._--It is difficult to make bends or curves in pipes and tubing without leaving a noticeable bulge at some point of the work. Seamless steel tubing may be handled without very great danger of this trouble if care is used, but iron pipe, having a seam running lengthwise, must be given special attention to avoid opening the seam.

Bends may be made without kinking if the tube or pipe is brought to a full red heat all the way around its circ.u.mference and at the place where the bend is desired. Hold the cool portion solidly in a vise and, by taking hold of the free end, bend very slowly and with a steady pull. The pipe must be kept at full red heat with the flames from one or more torches and must not be hammered to produce the bend. If a sufficient purchase cannot be secured on the free end by the hand, insert a piece of rod or a smaller pipe into the opening.

While making the bend, should small bulges appear, they may be hammered back into shape before proceeding with the work.

Tubing or pipes may be bent while being held between two flat metal surfaces while at a bright red heat. The metal plates at each side of the work prevent bulging.

Another method by which tubing may be bent consists of filling completely with tightly packed sand and fitting a solid cap or plug at each end.

Thin bra.s.s tubing may be filled with melted resin and may be bent after the resin cools. To remove the resin it is necessary to heat the tube, allowing it to run out.

Large jobs of bending should be handled in special pipe bending machines in which the work is forced through formed rolls which prevent its bulging.

WELDING

Welding with the heat of a blacksmith forge fire, or a coal or illuminating gas fire, can only be performed with iron and steel because of the low heat which is not localized as with the oxy-acetylene and electric processes.

Iron to be welded in this manner is heated until it reaches the temperature indicated by an orange color, not white, as is often stated, this orange color being slightly above 3600 degrees Fahrenheit. Steel is usually welded at a bright red heat because of the danger of oxidizing or burning the metal if the temperature is carried above this point.

_The Fire._--If made in a forge, the fire should be built from good smithing coal or, better still, from c.o.ke. Gas fires are, of course, produced by suitable burners and require no special preparation except adjustment of the heat to the proper degree for the size and thickness of the metal being welded so that it will not be burned.

A coal fire used for ordinary forging operations should not be used for welding because of the impurities it contains. A fresh fire should be built with a rather deep bed of coal, four to eight inches being about right for work ordinarily met with. The fire should be kept burning until the coal around the edges has been thoroughly c.o.ked and a sufficient quant.i.ty of fuel should be on and around the fire so that no fresh coal will have to be added while working.

After the c.o.king process has progressed sufficiently, the edges should be packed down and the fire made as small as possible while still surrounding the ends to be joined. The fire should not be altered by poking it while the metal is being heated. The best form of fire to use is one having rather high banks of c.o.ked coal on each side of the ma.s.s, leaving an opening or channel from end to end. This will allow the added fuel to be brought down on top of the fire with a small amount of disturbance.

_Preparing to Weld._--If the operator is not familiar with the metal to be handled, it is best to secure a test piece if at all possible and try heating it and joining the ends. Various grades of iron and steel call for different methods of handling and for different degrees of heat, the proper method and temperature being determined best by actual test under the hammer.

The form of the pieces also has a great deal to do with their handling, especially in the case of a more or less inexperienced workman. If the pieces are at all irregular in shape, the motions should be gone through with before the metal is heated and the best positions on the anvil as well as in the fire determined with regard to the convenience of the workman and speed of handling the work after being brought to a welding temperature.

Unnatural positions at the anvil should be avoided as good work is most difficult of performance under these conditions.

_Scarfing._--While there are many forms of welds, depending on the relative shape of the pieces to be joined, the portions that are to meet and form one piece are always shaped in the same general way, this shape being called a "scarf." The end of a piece of work, when scarfed, is tapered off on one side so that the extremity comes to a rather sharp edge.

The other side of the piece is left flat and a continuation in the same straight plane with its side of the whole piece of work. The end is then in the form of a bevel or mitre joint (Figure 50).

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 50.--Scarfing Ends of Work Ready for Welding]

Scarfing may be produced in any one of several ways. The usual method is to bring the ends to a forging heat, at which time they are upset to give a larger body of metal at the ends to be joined. This body of metal is then hammered down to the taper on one side, the length of the tapered portion being about one and a half times the thickness of the whole piece being handled. Each piece should be given this shape before proceeding farther.

The scarf may be produced by filing, sawing or chiseling the ends, although this is not good practice because it is then impossible to give the desired upset and additional metal for the weld. This added thickness is called for by the fact that the metal burns away to a certain extent or turns to scale, which is removed before welding.

When the two ends have been given this shape they should not fit as closely together as might be expected, but should touch only at the center of the area to be joined (Figure 51). That is to say, the surface of the beveled portion should bulge in the middle or should be convex in shape so that the edges are separated by a little distance when the pieces are laid together with the bevels toward each other. This is done so that the scale which is formed on the metal by the heat of the fire can have a chance to escape from the interior of the weld as the two parts are forced together.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 51.--Proper Shape of Scarfed Ends]

If the scarf were to be formed with one or more of the edges touching each other at the same time or before the centers did so, the scale would be imprisoned within the body of the weld and would cause the finished work to be weak, while possibly giving a satisfactory appearance from the outside.

_Fluxes._--In order to a.s.sist in removing the scale and other impurities and to make the welding surfaces as clean as possible while being joined, various fluxing materials are used as in other methods of welding.

For welding iron, a flux of white sand is usually used, this material being placed on the metal after it has been brought to a red heat in the fire.

Steel is welded with dry borax powder, this flux being applied at the same time as the iron flux just mentioned. Borax may also be used for iron welding and a mixture of borax with steel borings may also be used for either cla.s.s of work. Mixtures of sal ammoniac with borax have been successfully used, the proportions being about four parts of borax to one of sal ammoniac. Various prepared fluxing powders are on the market for this work, practically all of them producing satisfactory results.

After the metal has been in the fire long enough to reach a red heat, it is removed temporarily and, if small enough in size, the ends are dipped into a box of flux. If the pieces are large, they may simply be pulled to the edge of the fire and the flux then sprinkled on the portions to be joined.

A greater quant.i.ty of flux is required in forge welding than in electric or oxy-acetylene processes because of the losses in the fire. After the powder has been applied to the surfaces, the work is returned to the fire and heated to the welding temperature.

_Heating the Work._--After being scarfed, the two pieces to be welded are placed in the fire and brought to the correct temperature. This temperature can only be recognized by experiment and experience. The metal must be just below that point at which small sparks begin to be thrown out of the fire and naturally this is a hard point to distinguish. At the welding heat the metal is almost ready to flow and is about the consistency of putty. Against the background of the fire and coal the color appears to be a cream or very light yellow and the work feels soft as it is handled.

It is absolutely necessary that both parts be heated uniformly and so that they reach the welding temperature at the same time. For this reason they should be as close together in the fire as possible and side by side. When removed to be hammered together, time is saved if they are picked up in such a way that when laid together naturally the beveled surfaces come together. This makes it necessary that the workman remember whether the scarfed side is up or down, and to a.s.sist in this it is a good thing to mark the scarfed side with chalk or in some other noticeable manner, so that no mistake will be made in the hurry of placing the work on the anvil.

The common practice in heating allows the temperature to rise until the small white sparks are seen to come from the fire. Any heating above this point will surely result in burning that will ruin the iron or steel being handled. The best welding heat can be discerned by the appearance of the metal and its color after experience has been gained with this particular material. Test welds can be made and then broken, if possible, so that the strength gained through different degrees of heat can be known before attempting more important work.

_Welding._--When the work has reached the welding temperature after having been replaced in the fire with the flux applied, the two parts are quickly tapped to remove the loose scale from their surfaces. They are then immediately laid across the top of the anvil, being placed in a diagonal position if both pieces are straight. The lower piece is rested on the anvil first with the scarf turned up and ready to receive the top piece in the position desired. The second piece must be laid in exactly the position it is to finally occupy because the two parts will stick together as soon as they touch and they cannot well be moved after having once been allowed to come in contact with each other. This part of the work must be done without any unnecessary loss of time because the comparatively low heat at which the parts weld allows them to cool below the working temperature in a few seconds.

The greatest difficulty will be experienced in withdrawing the metal from the fire before it becomes burned and in getting it joined before it cools below this critical point. The beveled edges of the scarf are, of course, the first parts to cool and the weld must be made before they reach a point at which they will not join, or else the work will be defective in appearance and in fact.

If the parts being handled are of such a shape that there is danger of bending a portion back of the weld, this part may be cooled by quickly dipping it into water before laying the work on the anvil to be joined.

The workman uses a heavy hand hammer in making the joint, and his helper, if one is employed, uses a sledge. With the two parts of the work in place on the anvil, the workman strikes several light blows, the first ones being at a point directly over the center of the weld, so that the joint will start from this point and be worked toward the edges. After the pieces have united the helper strikes alternate blows with his sledge, always striking in exactly the same place as the last stroke of the workman. The hammer blows are carried nearer and nearer to the edges of the weld and are made steadily heavier as the work progresses.

The aim during the first part of the operation should be to make a perfect joint, with every part of the surfaces united, and too much attention should not be paid to appearance, at least not enough to take any chance with the strength of the work.

It will be found, after completion of the weld, that there has been a loss in length equal to one-half the thickness of the metal being welded. This loss is occasioned by the burned metal and the scale which has been formed.

_Finishing the Weld._--If it is possible to do so, the material should be hammered into the shape that it should remain with the same heat that was used for welding. It will usually be found, however, that the metal has cooled below the point at which it can be worked to advantage. It should then be replaced in the fire and brought back to a forging heat.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 52.--Upsetting and Scarfing the End of a Rod]

While shaping the work at this forging heat every part that has been at a red heat should be hammered with uniformly light and even blows as it cools. This restores the grain and strength of the iron or steel to a great extent and makes the unavoidable weakness as small as possible.

_Forms of Welds._--The simplest of all welds is that called a "lap weld." This is made between the ends of two pieces of equal size and similar form by scarfing them as described and then laying one on top of the other while they are hammered together.

A b.u.t.t weld (Figure 52) is made between the ends of two pieces of shaft or other bar shapes by upsetting the ends so that they have a considerable flare and shaping the face of the end so that it is slightly higher in the center than around the edges, this being done to make the centers come together first. The pieces are heated and pushed into contact, after which the hammering is done as with any other weld.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 53.--Scarfing for a T Weld]

A form similar to the b.u.t.t weld in some ways is used for joining the end of a bar to a flat surface and is called a jump weld. The bar is shaped in the same way as for a b.u.t.t weld. The flat plate may be left as it is, but if possible a depression should be made at the point where the shaft is to be placed. With the two parts heated as usual, the bar is dropped into position and hammered from above. As soon as the center of the weld has been made perfect, the joint may be finished with a fuller driven all the way around the edge of the joint.

When it is required to join a bar to another bar or to the edge of any piece at right angles the work is called a "T" weld from its shape when complete (Figure 53). The end of the bar is scarfed as described and the point of the other bar or piece where the weld is to be made is hammered so that it tapers to a thin edge like one-half of a circular depression. The pieces are then laid together and hammered as for a lap weld.

The ends of heavy bar shapes are often joined with a "V," or cleft, weld.

One bar end is shaped so that it is tapering on both sides and comes to a broad edge like the end of a chisel. The other bar is heated to a forging temperature and then slit open in a lengthwise direction so that the V-shaped opening which is formed will just receive the pointed edge of the first piece. With the work at welding heat, the two parts are driven together by hammering on the rear ends and the hammering then continues as with a lap weld, except that the work is turned over to complete both sides of the joint.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 54.-Splitting Ends to Be Welded in Thin Work]

The forms so far described all require that the pieces be laid together in the proper position after removal from the fire, and this always causes a slight loss of time and a consequent lowering of the temperature. With very light stock, this fall of temperature would be so rapid that the weld would be unsuccessful, and in this case the "lock" weld is resorted to. The ends of the two pieces to be joined are split for some distance back, and one-half of each end is bent up and the other half down (Figure 54). The two are then pushed together and placed in the fire in this position. When the welding heat is reached, it is only necessary to take the work out of the fire and hammer the parts together, inasmuch as they are already in the correct position.

Other forms of welds in which the parts are too small to retain their heat, can be made by first riveting them together or cutting them so that they can be temporarily fastened in any convenient way when first placed in the fire.